BOSANQUET, BERNARD

BOSANQUET, BERNARD. - Philosopher, b. in Northumberland on 14 June 1848, d. in London on 8 Feb. 1923, where he lived from 1881 onwards, except for a brief interval (1903-1908) when he taught philosophy at St. Andrews. In 1867 he entered Balliol College (Oxford) at a time when the influence of Green was very strong. Besides that of Plato and Hegel, he was also influenced by Lotze (whom he translated into English) and by his contemporary Bradley, with whom B. represents the best of English absolute idealism.

An open-minded man, B. easily sympathized with all spiritual movements and was attracted to almost all speculative problems: logical (Logic, Oxford 1888; The Essentials of Logic, London 1895); aesthetic (History of Aesthetic, 1882; Three Lectures on Aesthetic, 1895); moral (Psychology of the Moral Self, 1897; Principle of Individuality and Value, 1912; Value and Destiny of the Individual, 1913; Some Suggestions in Ethics, 1918); political-social (Aspects of the Social Problem, 1895; Philosophical Theory of the State, 1899; Social and International Ideals, 1917); religious (What Religion Is, 1912).

B. (like Bradley and Baillie) insisted on the dualistic elements of experience and on the transcendence of the Absolute. His is an idealism of Hegelian origin, but not properly Hegelian. The Platonic dualism of the two worlds is not to be understood as a sharp separation, but as a unity that does not exclude their distinction and the transcendence of the intelligible over the sensible, in which it is present. The presence of the intelligible in the sensible is art, whose essence is very close to that of religious experience: both, in fact, grasp reality in its concrete unity, without ever expressing it perfectly and totally. No form of experience (not even thought, which is the authorization of reality), however elevated, can ever adequately express the Absolute, which is therefore always transcendent.

The term *Deala* does not correspond to any known entry in the *Enciclopedia Cattolica*. It appears to be a typographical error or a misrepetition of the phrase *"Il nuovo ideale"* (The New Ideal). If you intended to refer to a specific entry, please verify the correct headword.

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IL NUOVO IDEALE

The concept of the "new ideal" has been a recurring theme in philosophical, theological, and cultural reflections, particularly in the context of modern and contemporary thought. It often emerges as a critique of traditional values or as an attempt to redefine human aspirations in light of evolving historical and social conditions.

In Catholic thought, the idea of a "new ideal" has been approached with caution, as it may imply a rupture with the perennial principles of faith and morality. However, some theologians and philosophers have explored how the Church might engage with modernity without compromising its doctrinal integrity. For instance, the *aggiornamento* (updating) proposed by the Second Vatican Council sought to reconcile the Church’s timeless message with the demands of the contemporary world, without embracing a "new ideal" in the sense of a radical departure from tradition.

The tension between innovation and tradition remains a central concern. While the Church affirms the possibility of progress in understanding and expressing its teachings (as seen in developments in social doctrine, liturgy, or ecumenism), it rejects any "new ideal" that would undermine the deposit of faith or the natural law. As Pope Pius XII warned in *Humani Generis* (1950), certain modern tendencies risk reducing theology to mere speculation or adapting doctrine to the spirit of the age rather than to divine revelation.

In philosophy, the "new ideal" has been associated with movements such as existentialism, personalism, or even secular humanism, which propose alternative frameworks for human flourishing outside the Christian tradition. Catholic thinkers, however, have often responded by reaffirming the primacy of the *imago Dei* (image of God) as the true foundation of human dignity and purpose. For example, Jacques Maritain’s *Integral Humanism* (1936) sought to articulate a vision of human progress rooted in Thomistic principles, avoiding both the pitfalls of utopian idealism and the relativism of modern ideologies.

Ultimately, the "new ideal" in Catholic discourse is not a rejection of the past but a call to rediscover the timeless truths of the Gospel in ways that speak to the challenges of each era. As St. John Henry Newman observed, development in doctrine does not mean change in essence but a deeper penetration into the mysteries of faith. Thus, the "new ideal" must always be measured against the unchanging truth of Christ, who is "the same yesterday, today, and forever" (*Hebrews* 13:8).

BIBL.:
- J. Maritain, *Humanisme intégral*, Paris 1936;
- Pius XII, *Humani Generis*, in *Acta Apostolicae Sedis* 42 (1950);
- Y. Congar, *Vraie et fausse réforme dans l’Église*, Paris 1950;
- G. Philips, *L’Église et son mystère au IIᵉ Concile du Vatican*, Paris 1967.

A. Rossi## IDEAL, THE NEW

The expression "the new ideal" (*il nuovo ideale*) has been used in various contexts to denote a renewed or transformed conception of moral, spiritual, or cultural values, often in contrast with preceding or traditional ideals. In Catholic thought, the term may refer to the reaffirmation of perennial truths in response to modern challenges, or to the adaptation of Christian principles to contemporary circumstances without compromising their essence.

### Historical and Philosophical Context
The notion of a "new ideal" emerged prominently in the 19th and early 20th centuries, a period marked by rapid social, political, and intellectual transformations. Thinkers such as **Antonio Rosmini** and **Vincenzo Gioberti** sought to reconcile Catholic doctrine with the demands of modernity, proposing a synthesis that would preserve the Church’s spiritual authority while engaging with the philosophical and scientific advancements of the time. Rosmini, in particular, emphasized the role of reason in illuminating faith, arguing that a "new ideal" of Christian life could arise from a deeper understanding of the relationship between human intellect and divine revelation (v. ROSMINIANISMO).

In the broader European context, the idea of a "new ideal" was often associated with movements that sought to transcend materialism and positivism. Figures like **Friedrich Nietzsche**, though critical of Christianity, invoked the need for a "new ideal" to overcome the nihilism he perceived in modern culture. Catholic thinkers, however, rejected such critiques, insisting that the true "new ideal" could only be found in the renewal of Christian faith and practice, rather than in the abandonment of religious tradition.

### Theological and Pastoral Dimensions
Within Catholic theology, the "new ideal" has been linked to the concept of *aggiornamento*, a term popularized by **Pope John XXIII** in the context of the **Second Vatican Council**. *Aggiornamento* called for the Church to "open the windows" to the modern world, updating its pastoral methods and expressions of faith while remaining rooted in its doctrinal foundations. This process was not a rejection of tradition but an effort to present the Gospel in ways that resonated with contemporary society.

The "new ideal" in this sense involves a dynamic engagement with culture, where the Church seeks to address the spiritual and moral needs of modern humanity without diluting the truth of its message. This approach is evident in the writings of theologians such as **Karl Rahner**, who explored the implications of a "world Church" (*Weltkirche*) and the universal call to holiness, as well as in the pastoral initiatives of **Pope Paul VI**, who emphasized the Church’s mission to promote justice, peace, and human dignity in a rapidly changing world.

### Critiques and Challenges
The pursuit of a "new ideal" has not been without controversy. Some traditionalist voices within the Church have warned against the risks of excessive accommodation to modern values, fearing that such adaptations could lead to a loss of doctrinal clarity or a weakening of moral standards. Others, however, argue that the "new ideal" is not a departure from tradition but a necessary evolution, enabling the Church to remain a vital and relevant force in the lives of believers.

The tension between innovation and tradition remains a central theme in discussions of the "new ideal." The challenge lies in discerning which aspects of modernity can be harmonized with Catholic teaching and which must be resisted in defense of the faith’s integrity.

### Conclusion
The "new ideal" in Catholic thought represents an ongoing effort to articulate the timeless truths of Christianity in ways that speak to the contemporary world. It is not a rejection of the past but a reaffirmation of the Gospel’s power to transform lives across different historical and cultural contexts. As the Church continues to navigate the complexities of modernity, the "new ideal" serves as a reminder of the need for both fidelity to tradition and openness to the Holy Spirit’s guidance in every age.

BIBL.:
- Rosmini A., *Delle cinque piaghe della Santa Chiesa*, Milano 1848.
- Gioberti V., *Del primato morale e civile degli Italiani*, Bruxelles 1843.
- Rahner K., *Theological Investigations*, vol. V, London 1966.
- Congar Y., *True and False Reform in the Church*, Collegeville 1968.
- John XXIII, *Allocution for the Opening of the Second Vatican Council*, 11 ottobre 1962.

**G. MARTINI**## IDEAL

The term *ideal* (from the Latin *idealis*, derived from the Greek *ἰδέα*, *idea*) denotes, in its most general philosophical sense, the perfect model of a thing, existing in the mind as an archetype or exemplar. In this meaning, the concept of the ideal has been present since antiquity, particularly in Platonic philosophy, where the *ideas* are eternal, immutable, and perfect forms that serve as the true reality, of which sensible things are mere imperfect copies (v. PLATONISMO).

In Christian thought, the ideal assumes a theological dimension, especially in relation to the concept of God as the supreme and perfect Being, the *summum bonum*, from which all created ideals derive their perfection. The ideal, in this context, is not merely an abstract model but a reflection of divine perfection, which humanity is called to imitate through moral and spiritual striving. The imitation of Christ (v. MEDIAZIONE DI CRISTO) represents the highest Christian ideal, embodying the union of divine and human perfection.

In modern philosophy, the concept of the ideal has been reinterpreted in various ways. Kant, for instance, distinguishes between the *ideal of pure reason* and the *practical ideal*, the former being a regulative principle guiding knowledge, and the latter an ethical goal to be pursued (v. KANTISMO). Hegel, on the other hand, sees the ideal as the realization of the Absolute Spirit in history, where the ideal and the real ultimately coincide (v. HEGELIANESIMO).

In contemporary thought, the ideal often refers to a normative standard or a utopian vision guiding human action. However, within Catholic doctrine, the ideal retains its transcendent character, rooted in the divine order and oriented toward the ultimate end of human existence: union with God.

BIBL.:
- Platone, *Repubblica*, libro VI-VII;
- S. Tommaso d'Aquino, *Summa Theologiae*, I, q. 44, a. 3;
- I. Kant, *Critica della ragion pura*, tr. it., Bari 1966;
- G.W.F. Hegel, *Lineamenti di filosofia del diritto*, tr. it., Bari 1954;
- J. Maritain, *Antimoderne*, tr. it., Brescia 1935.

A. Rossi

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NUOVO IDEALE

The expression *new ideal* (Italian: *nuovo ideale*) refers to a philosophical, cultural, or religious movement that proposes a renewal of traditional ideals, often in response to historical, social, or intellectual crises. The concept of a *new ideal* has emerged in various contexts, particularly during periods of profound transformation, such as the Renaissance, the Enlightenment, or the modern era, where established values were called into question, and new visions of human existence were sought.

In the Catholic tradition, the idea of a *new ideal* is often associated with reform movements aimed at revitalizing the Church and society in accordance with the Gospel. For example, the *Devotio Moderna* (v. MODERNISMO) of the late Middle Ages represented an attempt to renew spiritual life through a return to the simplicity and interiority of early Christianity. Similarly, the Second Vatican Council (v. CONCILIO VATICANO II) can be seen as an effort to propose a *new ideal* of the Church, one more attuned to the needs of the modern world while remaining faithful to its foundational mission.

In philosophy, the *new ideal* has been invoked by thinkers seeking to overcome the limitations of existing systems. For instance, the *new idealism* of the late 19th and early 20th centuries, represented by figures such as Benedetto Croce and Giovanni Gentile in Italy, sought to revitalize Hegelian idealism by emphasizing the dynamic and creative role of the spirit in history (v. IDEALISMO).

The *new ideal* is not merely a rejection of the past but a synthesis that integrates tradition with innovation. In this sense, it reflects the Catholic understanding of *aggiornamento*, a term popularized by Pope John XXIII, which signifies the updating of the Church’s message without compromising its essential truth.