Upanishads

UPANISHADS. - U. means "esoteric doctrine," secret, to be communicated only to a few initiates. It is the common denomination of a series of works differing in age, size and character, but equally intent on speculating on the essence of Brahman (v.), the cosmic principle, and on its identity with the Atman, the "self," the psychic principle, the soul. Only the U. composed in the Vedic Schools (sākhā) are canonical, of which they are the last product. They are therefore also called, collectively, Vedānta, "end of the Veda," a name that was also given to the monism of Bādarāyaṇa and of Śaṅkara, founded on the Upaniṣadic doctrines (v. VEDĀNTA).

Attached to the Brāhmaṇa (v.) by means of the Āraṇyaka (v. BRAHMANESIMO), the U. constitute their epilogue, substituting philosophy for the allegorical interpretation of ritual. To the formation of the new doctrine a period of about three centuries (800-500 B.C.) is usually assigned, but it is not possible to determine the age to which the individual U. belong. Following Prof. Deussen, those that enjoy the reputation of canonical texts and are considered revelation (truti) are divided into three groups. They are cited in approximately chronological succession, and the first group of 6, in prose, opens with the important "U. of the great Āraṇyaka," followed by the "Chāndogya-

U." probably coeval, by the Taittiriya-U., by the Aitareya-U., by the Kausitaki-U. and by the Kena-U. The second group comprises 5 U. in verse, among which the first, the Kāthaka-U., is noteworthy for its dramatic introductory episode. Then come the Īśā-U., the Śvetāśvatara-U., the Muṇḍaka-U. and the Mahānārāśyana-U. The series is closed by three other U. in prose, also attributed to specific Vedic schools, but evidently later because they draw extensively on the preceding ones and are more refined in language and style. They bear the titles of Praśna-U., Maitrāśyana-U., and Māṇḍākyā-U. These 14 U., although expounding a doctrine not yet reduced to a system and therefore not devoid of discrepancies and contradictions, all reflect the original cosmic conception improperly designated by the Western name of pantheism, but which could better be defined as theopanismo, the doctrine of the God-All. This culminates in idealistic monism, which can be summed up in these three apothegms of the brahmin Vāṭāvalkya: 1st The Ātman is the subject of knowledge. Bṛhadāraṇyaka-U., III, 8, 11: "In truth, O Gōrgī, this Indefectible is the Seer unseen, the Hearer unheard, the Intelligent one uncomprehended, the Knower unknown; there is no other seer than he, there is no other hearer than he, there is no other intelligent one than he, there is no other knower than he. In truth in this Indefectible is woven and interwoven space." 2nd The Ātman as subject of knowledge, is itself unknowable: ibid., II, 4, 14: "How can one know him from whom the knowledge of everything emanates? How can one know the knower?" 3rd The Ātman is the only reality, in him space is interwoven and interlaced with all that is gathered in it: ibid., IV, 3, 23: "There is no second besides him, there is no thing different from him, that can be seen."

Ferdinando Belloni-Filippi