MOKSA. — M., from the root muc, “to liberate, to release,” signifies liberation from saṃsāra, from the continual passage of souls from one form of existence to karman (v.). Synonyms of the word m., besides mukti, vimukti, and vimokṣa, derived from the same root, are also apavarga, nirvṛti, and nirvāṇa. The religions and philosophical systems that aim at liberation from saṃsāra, although pursuing a single goal, differ in the way of attaining II. Since it is impossible to review all the forms of liberation, only a few examples are cited, drawn from the most important orthodox systems.
In Vedānta (v.), which is the most widespread philosophical system among the educated classes of modern India, m. is attained by recognizing the essential identity of the individual soul (Ātman) with the soul of the universe (Brahman [v.]). “He who knows himself to be Brahman becomes this entire universe,” says the Bṛhadāraṇyaka-upaniṣad, I, 4, 10. Intuitive knowledge of cosmic unity is already liberation, but life continues as a result of karman until the merit and demerit of previously performed actions have been exhausted. Death then brings about the union of the liberated soul with Brahman (God). The schools of Vedānta do not agree regarding the manner of this union, which, according to Bādarāyapa, does not destroy individuality, whereas, according to Śaṅkara, who adheres more closely to the thought of the Upaniṣad (v.), it consists in a theocracy that is the complete fusion of the individual soul with Brahman. The pantheistic monism of Vedānta is opposed by the atheistic dualism of Sāṃkhya. Souls and matter, equally uncreated and eternal, are clearly distinct. M. is attained through “discriminative knowledge,” which makes evident the absolute difference between the subject of knowledge and the “internal organ,” which is purely material. In Vaiśeṣika, liberation (m., apavarga) is attained through right knowledge of the six categories (padārtha), in which everything that exists is believed to be included. Moral conduct and good works prepare the soul to receive the truth, but cannot by themselves confer liberation, which is nevertheless not a state of blessedness. Joy, like pain, its inseparable companion, is a quality of the soul, and the liberated soul is without qualities: pure and simple substance, eternally withdrawn from pain. In Vyāya, which may be regarded as the complement of Vaiśeṣika, the liberating function is attributed to perfect knowledge of the sixteen logical concepts, also called padārtha by analogy with the categories of Vaiśeṣika, although they are not true categories in the proper sense.
photo I. D. Stefanescu, L'art byzantin et l'art tambard en Transylvanie, Paris 1935, pl. 2
MOLDAVIA — Ecumenical Councils. Fresco of the 15th–16th century.
St. George of Harlau.