MOKSA. - M., from the root muc, "to liberate, to release," means liberation from saṃsāra, from the continuous passage of souls from one form of existence to another through the effect of karman (v.). Synonyms of the word m., besides mukti, vimukti and vimokṣa, derived from the same root, are also apavarga, nirvṛti and nirvāṇa. The religions and philosophical systems that propose liberation from saṃsāra, although aiming at a single goal, differ in the manner of attaining it. Since it is not possible to review all the ways of liberation, only a few examples are cited, drawn from the most important orthodox systems.
In Vedānta (v.), which is the philosophical system most widespread among the educated classes of modern India, m. is obtained by recognizing the substantial identity of the individual soul (Ātman) with the soul of the universe (Brahman [v.]). "He who knows that he is Brahman, becomes all this universe," says the Bṛhadāraṇyaka-upaniṣad, I, 4, 10. The intuitive knowledge of cosmic unity is already liberation, but life continues through the effect of karman, until the exhaustion of the merit and demerit of previously performed actions. Death then determines the union of the liberated soul with Brahman (God). The schools of Vedānta are not in agreement regarding the manner of this union which, according to Bādarāyapa, does not destroy individuality, while, according to Śaṅkara, more closely adhering to the thought of the Upaniṣad (v.), it consists in a theocracy that is a complete fusion of the individual soul with Brahman. To the pantheistic monism of Vedānta is opposed the atheistic dualism of Sāṃkhya. Souls and matter, equally uncreated and eternal, are clearly distinct. M. is obtained through "discriminative knowledge," which makes manifest the absolute diversity of the subject of knowledge from the "internal organ," which is purely material. In Vaiśeṣika liberation (m., apavarga) is obtained through right knowledge of the six categories (padārtha) in which everything that exists is believed to be comprised. Moral conduct and good works predispose the soul to receive the truth, but cannot by themselves confer liberation, which is nevertheless not a state of beatitude. Joy as well as sorrow, its inseparable companion, are qualities of the soul, and the liberated soul is devoid of qualities, a pure and simple substance, eternally removed from sorrow. In Vyāya, which can be considered the complement of Vaiśeṣika, the liberating function is attributed to perfect knowledge of the sixteen logical concepts, also called padārtha by analogy with the categories of Vaiśeṣika, although they are not true categories.
Bibliography
Ferdinando Belloni Filippi
foto I. D. Stefanescu, L'art byzantin et l'art tambard en Transylvanie, Parigi 1935, lav. 2
MOLDAVIA - Ecumenical councils. Fresco of the 15th-16th century.
St. George of Harlau.