STOECKER, ADOLF. — German politician and sociologist, Protestant, b. 11 Nov. 1835 at Halberstadt, d. 8 Feb. 1909 at Gries near Bolzano. Protestant pastor, from 1874–89 court preacher in Berlin, from 1879–98 member of the Prussian Council (Landtag), and from 1881–93 and 1898–1908 member of the Reichstag.
A staunch opponent of liberalism and Marxism, he organized the Protestant social movement, aiming to preserve the great cities from the decline of religious life. A powerful political orator, he fought against Jewish influence in political life. In 1895 he founded the Christian-Social Party, and in 1897 the Free Ecclesiastical Conference. From 1892 he was editor of the religious newspaper of German Protestants, *Die deutsch-evangelische Kirchenzeitung*.
Principal works: *Christlich-Sosial* (2nd ed., Berlin 1890); *13 Jahre Hofprediger u. Politiker* (6th ed., ibid. 1895); *Reden u. Aufsätze* (ibid. 1913); *Reden im Reichstag* (ibid. 1914).
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STOFFE. — Recent excavations show that the art of weaving dates back to the remotest Stone Age. Discoveries in Egypt, as well as in northern countries, especially in the lake-dwelling centers of Switzerland and Lake Constance, reveal that human civilization from its earliest times was acquainted with the technical problem of weaving; and already in the Paleolithic period, alongside simple braided fabrics, there are found true woven textiles.
It is not possible to determine how much material was imported into individual countries. Egypt at first preferred linen; the northern Bronze Age countries seem to have preferred wool, but in an earlier period they too appear to have favored linen. These fabrics, even in the earliest Stone Age, were worked or had rich borders. Fabrics of twill (serge) have been found even among the lake-dwellings. Originally, weaving was done on a loom, as is deduced from representations in the tomb of Mehentutze at Thebes (c. 2100–2000 B.C.) where a weaving scene with two horizontal looms is depicted. Representations of vertical looms are often found in later periods, although the horizontal loom continued to be used. The vertical loom was in fact employed especially for the production of tapestry fabrics. Even Penelope’s loom, according to a vase painting of the 5th century B.C., was a heavy loom used for making brocaded fabrics or tapestries. Weaving was done chiefly by women, as Homer relates. Similar information is provided by Pliny (*Hist. nat.*, VII, 74). Embroidered ornaments were particularly fashionable, and their invention is attributed to the Phrygians. Little has survived of original fabrics from classical times. Finds in the Crimea give an idea of their appearance. They were largely executed with the finest tapestry technique; similar fabrics are also found among the Romans, made on both horizontal and vertical looms.
An important source for knowledge of fabrics from the early Christian era is provided by discoveries at Dura-Eúropos, destroyed about A.D. 250. Among other things, a series of important examples of silk fabrics is found there, partly of classical type, partly with technique and decoration already known from Egyptian tombs. Another famous find-spot is Palmyra, where a partly similar technique and type is observed. The materials used were chiefly wool and linen; cotton is rare. Most precious were silk fabrics (*serica*), which came from China partly as finished textiles, partly as thread or raw silk. Generally they were combined with linen, cotton, or wool thread (*subserica*); the weft was of silk. All-silk fabrics were the purple-dyed textiles, whose color was obtained from two kinds of shellfish: that of Tyre was considered the best. Gold-woven fabrics were very rare; their invention was attributed by Pliny to King Attalus (*Attalica peripetasmata*). These precious fabrics were called *aurata vestis*. Remains of such gold-woven fabrics are preserved in the National Museum of Budapest.
From the 4th century onward, preserved evidence of the textile art becomes numerous: Egyptian tombs have preserved garments and tablecloths, and the Church venerates relics such as, for example, the Holy Coat in Trier, the Shroud in Turin, the Veil of the Madonna in Chartres, the two tunics in the Treasure of the Sancta Sanctorum in the Vatican Sacristy, and the dalmatic of St. Ambrose (v.) in Milan. Most of the precious fabrics served as wrappings for relics in the great treasuries of cathedrals such as Aachen, Conques, Maastricht, Monza, Sion, St-Maurice, Liège, and Durham. Fragments of such fabrics are preserved in the great collections of fabrics in Paris, Berlin, London, Lyon, Brussels, and New York. The silk fabrics found in Egyptian tombs seem largely to have been imported, especially from Persia. Important data for the classification of fabrics are provided by literary sources, foremost among them the *Liber Pontificalis*, which deals with their provenance, technique, and use.
Large fabrics and embroideries were used to adorn churches and palaces, hung before doors, between columns, surrounded the ciborium (*vela*), were arranged around the altar and in the apse. Valuable tablecloths were placed on the altar and over the tombs of saints (*pallea, mafortes*); smaller ones covered chalice and paten. Not only the major churches but also the smaller ones possessed notable collections, as is evident from the *Charta Communia* of the year 471 containing the inventory of a small church near Tivoli (*Lib. Pont.*, I, pp. cxliv–vii). Fabrics woven with gold were those of Hagia Sophia in Constantinople, and it is known that Justinian donated to this church altar cloths embroidered with gold and precious stones, while Leo III had 164 carpets and 91 made for St. Peter’s in Rome alone. The *Liber Pontificalis* also records large donations to smaller churches in Rome. Moreover, from Gregory of Tours and Paul the Deacon it is learned that northern churches were not behind in possessing important collections of more or less precious fabrics.
Such silk fabrics include the one from Trier, coming from the tomb of St. Paulinus, and another with a hunting scene from the monastery of Mozac, said to have been donated by Pippin in the 8th century and now preserved in Lyon. In the early Middle Ages, great luxury was evident in clothing; St. Jerome already complains about this (PL 22, 410, 535). Unfortunately, no complete silk garments from that period have survived, only small fragments, mainly from the tombs of Antinoöpolis (now in Paris and Lyon); but from the representations on consular diptychs or mosaics (Ravenna, S. Vitale) and from miniatures (Rossano Codex), it is still possible to form an idea of those silk garments richly adorned with gold and embroidery. Ausonius reports having received from Emperor Gratian a tunic with palm-leaf motifs featuring the portrait of Constantius (PL 19, 928, 943). Asterius of Amasea (d. c. 410) in a sermon compared men to painted walls decorated with hunting scenes (PG 40, 165). This fashion seems to have dominated throughout the Mediterranean basin. Indeed, the tunic, which from the 5th century onward replaced the toga, as seen in the frescoes of early Christian cemeteries or in the finds from Coptic tombs, is mostly simply adorned with round or square appliqués on the shoulders or over the knees (orbiculi) or with narrow stripes and bands (clavi), which in the finest examples were woven into the fabric and in the more common ones were sewn on.
Particularly precious silk fabrics were also used for the cushions on which reliquaries were placed, as recorded in the *Liber Pontificalis* and as seen in the Treasury of the Sancta Sanctorum, where these cushions are adorned with precious borders (*periclysin de chrysoclawo*).
As for their origin, the *Liber Pontificalis* indicates that during the early Middle Ages, silks largely came from the East: there are references to silks from Syria (*de tyreo*), from Byzantium (*de blati bizanteo*), from Alexandria (*pannum alexandrinum*), and toward the end of the Middle Ages from Cyprus (*de opere Cyprensi*), from Asia (*de panno tartarico*), and from Syria (*diaspro de Antiochia*). Although many of the names of these silks derive from their places of origin, some also reflect Sassanian influence, as seen in the fine cloth from the Sancta Sanctorum, which, due to its color, design, and technique, is believed to have been made in one of the major centers of Asia Minor. The treasuries of Sens, Huy, Liège, Sion, and Nancy preserve other examples of this type.
Constantinople also seems to have imitated, in addition to Syrian silks in Hellenistic style, those from Persia. Some of these imitations are so perfect as to suggest Persian weavers relocated to Constantinople: the Emperor of Mozac in Lyon, King Yazdgerd in Berlin, and the "knights" in the Basilica of Sant’Ambrogio in Milan. Alongside these silk fabrics, simpler wool and linen textiles are found, especially in the numerous cemeteries of Egypt. As for technique, most of these fabrics are woven in the characteristic Coptic manner; however, among those of Hellenistic purple (kermes) some are woven in a knotted technique. Among the fabrics of the 6th–7th centuries, linen figured work in various colors or even in purple can be seen.
With the Arab conquest of Egypt (640), this technique did not cease immediately but continued for a long time alongside that used for Islamic silks. The greatest discoveries were made in the large cemeteries of Panopolis (Ahmin), Antinoöpolis, Crocodilopolis, and Saqqarah. The first systematic excavations were conducted by Napoleon (1798–1801), and the related finds largely enriched the Museum of Turin. But major museums such as those in London, Paris, Lyon, Berlin, Brussels, Florence, and Cairo also possess notable collections of Coptic silks. Church paraments, such as the one in Berlin, are very rare. Generally, these are simple tunics and sleeves used to cover the deceased in tombs.
With the advancement of Islamic civilization, a new flourishing of textile art is observed; however, this only slowly led to a transformation of motifs. Byzantine taste and the art developed in Egypt, Syria, and Persia—the great textile centers—still predominate. Oriental sources mention a series of production centers, which are also localized by the inscriptions woven into these precious fabrics. It is especially the reliquaries that reveal magnificent examples, some woven with gold. Egypt was the most important production center, and Ibn Jubayr, who traveled from Sicily to Mecca in 1183, describes such fabrics adorning the Kaaba. The principal commercial emporium was Alexandria, while the main factories were in Damietta and Tinnis, with a royal manufactory, as well as in Dabika, Dumaira, and Tuna.
Silks with gold floral patterns (*dabiki*) and with representations of hunting and battles were favored by naval commanders. Particularly prized were fine linen and batiste fabrics purchased in Egypt. Gold-woven silks were mainly produced for caliphs. The ornamentation was arranged in a manner reminiscent of Coptic decoration. Fine examples are provided by the Fatimid-era necropolises with their finds from Upper Egypt.
Under the Norman kings, Palermo became an important center of textile art (*Regium Ergasterium*). Woven gold galloons, such as those still found in many mitres in Anagni, Capua, Monza, Bamberg (*mitra cum aurifrisio*), and in Mass vestments, as in Ascoli Piceno, were mainly intended for export. The finest piece from these manufactories is certainly the mantle with Arabesque decoration made in Palermo in 1133 for King Roger II. Of interest in this fabric is the blend of Arab and Byzantine motifs. The Sicilian textile art received a great boost when, after the Norman campaign of 1147, Greek workers settled near Palermo, although the Arab element still prevailed. The magnificent silk with peacocks at St-Sernin in Toulouse shows this interesting blend of elements. Even if the works of the Sicilian school are not as numerous as Falke still believed, this school exerted a considerable influence on the formation of Italian schools, especially the school of Lucca with its splendid gold and silver brocades. Through fabrics adorned with inscriptions, such as that of Caliph al-Muqtadir Billah (608–32) of Baghdad, that in Autun belonging to a minister of Córdoba, or that of the Seljuk Sultan Kayqubad in Lyon from Konya, one can discern in various centers of the Islamic world a flourishing of textile workshops whose style remained closely related.
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**STOFFE** — Paleochristian *brandeum* with traces of blood, an object of great veneration in the Middle Ages; white damasked linen fabric, much worn, sewn onto another white damasked linen fabric — Vatican Sacristy, Treasury of the Sancta Sanctorum.
**STOFFE** — Paleochristian *brandeum* with traces of blood, an object of
1359
**STOFFE**
**Fabrics** — Wool fabric on linen, in brown, black, red, yellow, pink, and green, with a central vase of fruit, from Panopolis (Ahmin) (4th century) — Vatican Sacristy.
Animal heraldic motifs, such as lions, eagles, peacocks, or griffins, along with hunting or battle scenes, are found even in western Persia and Central Asia. The second important centre of textile production in the early Middle Ages was Byzantium. Here, too, apart from literary sources, one can rely only on the knowledge of pieces still preserved in church treasuries or which have come from them to the great museums of Europe and America. The most important workshops were those of the imperial court in Constantinople, and already Bishop Liutprand of Cremona reports how the export of purple silks was strictly forbidden. But large manufactories also existed in other parts of the Empire, and Rabbi Benjamin of Tudela (1160–73) says, for example, that in Thebes a great number of Jewish textile workers were employed. On the other hand, silks also came from the provinces as tribute to the capital. Rabbi Benjamin further reports that silk merchants flocked to Constantinople from all over the world, thereby spreading Byzantine silks throughout the East. Alongside these merchants, the Venetians played a preponderant role in the diffusion of Byzantine silks, which were also introduced into the great Italian ports such as Amalfi. Thus the Liber pontificalis recalls how Gregory IV (844) purchased a silk with a representation of the emperor (velum habens historiam imperatoris). These silks reached the West in large quantities especially after the conquest of Constantinople by the Latins (1204). A good example of such figured textiles is offered by the great silk of Bamberg from the tomb of Bishop Gunther (d. 1064), with the Emperor riding between ancient and new Rome. A fragment of an imperial representation was also found in a reliquary from Verdun (now in London). Otherwise, the preserved pieces mostly show representations of animals—eagles, griffins, lions, or horses—mostly enclosed in roundels (orbiculi). The silks are polychrome, and the most precious, from imperial manufactories, have a purple ground (blattia, imperialis purpura).
After a certain stagnation of textile art during the 6th and 7th centuries, workshops began to flourish again from the 8th to the 12th centuries. The vast extent of commercial relations and the diffusion of goods attained at that time were never again equalled. Old motifs were reworked and new ideas came from the East, especially from Persia, as is clearly demonstrated by the imperial mantle from Mozac or by the winged horses among scrolls in Hanover. Often a single animal is enclosed in a medallion, as in the magnificent silk with elephants in Charlemagne’s reliquary at Aachen. These silks differ from Persian ones by their even greater stylization and stronger colours. Without medallions are the splendid large lions on two silks from the reliquary of Anno at Siegburg, of which fragments also exist at Deutz, Düsseldorf, and Berlin. The first of these silks dates to 921–31 and bears the names of the emperors Romanus and Christopher; the second to 976–1025, with those of Basil II and Constantine VII. Also highly prized were the purple silks with eagles, without circular framing, from Brixen and Salzburg. Very finely woven are the satin silks with ornaments in pointed oval fields, such as the mantle of Otto I at Merseburg or the chasuble of Bishop Willigis (d. 1011) at St Stephen’s in Mainz. Particularly appreciated were silks worked with small circles, squares, or stars. They show a double warp with weft in coloured threads. Unfortunately almost nothing has survived of the famous Byzantine embroideries of the early Middle Ages. The so-called dalmatic of Charlemagne at St Peter’s in Rome already belongs to a later period (cf. vol. II, cols. 1680–90), but the veils of Castell’Arquato with the Communion of the Apostles still show the rigid style of the early period (cf. vol. X, pl. XLV). Embroidery was then much used, especially for vestments such as sakkoi, omophoria, epimanikia, epigonatia, mitres, and stoles. Particularly sumptuous, in a later period, were the epitaphia, adorned with embroidery that on Good Friday covered the sepulchre of Christ, such as that of Ochrid with the name of Andronicus Palaeologus (1282–1328). Frequent examples are found in the monasteries of the Balkans, especially on Mount Athos, Putna, and Zolkiew.
Also influenced by the East and by Byzantium are the earliest medieval silks in Italy. It is certain that after the death of Manfred many textile workers left Sicily and brought their art to Lucca and Venice. Thus here too one notes a blending of Byzantine and Saracen motifs, although Venice turned more towards the East. For the most part these are two-colour silks, such as yellow on a dark ground, often red, with figures of confronted animals free in the field. Thus the galloon on the chasuble of Bl. Bernardo degli Ubertini (d. 1133) at S. Trinita in Florence may be considered a product of the Venetian workshops, renowned for their “aurifrisiis,” while the dalmatic found in the tomb of Benedict XI (d. 1304) at Perugia recalls the silks of the Far East. Magnificent embroideries are preserved at Anagni, whose paraments may perhaps be identified with the silks that, according to the papal inventory of 1295, are connected with Cyprus, while the dorsal there preserved reveals affinities with the school of Roman painting of the time. A tablecloth of the Sancta Sanctorum in the Vatican Museums, in white embroidery, is inspired by an ornamentation still primitive. More advanced is the design of the tablecloth of Bl. Benvenuta Boiani at St Peter’s in Cividale (d. 1292). Such works appear identical to embroideries in “opus Theotonicum.” Venice clearly exercised its influence also on the workshops of southern Germany, among which the principal one was that of Ratisbon, and already Wolfram von Eschenbach praises the “zendel,” workshops of this city. Given the high cost of raw silk, German weavers used linen thread for the warp, so that these textiles have a certain stiffness. As material for the weft, gold threads wound on thin gold tubes were much used for the figures. Two groups of such silks can be distinguished: one with saints and scenes from the New Testament, such as the altar hanging of Ratisbon Cathedral with the figure of Bishop Henry II (1277–96) or that of Waldburg with the Nativity of Christ. The other consists of smaller pieces, very numerous, with griffins, falcons, lions, and eagles that are stylistically related to Italian silks. Ancient motifs are also encountered, such as the apotheosis of Alexander. A very Byzantine-influenced silk with this theme is also preserved at Würzburg. It is interesting to note how the use of these half-silk textiles from Ratisbon was forbidden at Cluny (cf. Tott. Biblioteca Vaticana).
In the Biblioteca Vaticana, Strozzian and Wool on linen in red and white. Long strip with lateral borders, attached to white cloth; from Egypt. The stylized leaves, branches, and palmettes reveal an advanced degree in the art of decoration. Probably to be attributed to the Arab period (8th–9th cent.) — Museo Sacro Vaticano.
(1st. Biblioteca Vaticana)
(735)
Other centres of this art arose alongside them, such as Milan and Genoa. While the design and technique changed little, textile art was devoted above all to the production of sumptuous velvets which were no longer smooth but featured especially the pomegranate motif. The finest pieces, with enamelled colours, were made chiefly in Venice, where the velvet weavers had enjoyed the right to form their own guild since 1247, granted by the Great Council. In the 15th century these new designs were also used for other textiles such as damasks and brocades. It may be said that there is no cathedral treasury or museum which does not contain magnificent examples of them. Thus in the Museo dell’Opera in Siena, at Orvieto, Spoleto, Montefiascone, Gandino or in the museums of London, New York, Boston, Paris, Lyon, Berlin, Milan, Rome and elsewhere, precious collections of such velvets are still to be found, some dated by the coats of arms of their donors. Painting also provides good dated examples here, especially in the Venetian school with Crivelli and Bellini. From the mid-century onwards, other motifs besides the pomegranate began to appear. Thus Florence produced gold textiles with coloured outlines or two-colour silk textiles with bands of scrolls, palmettes and coats of arms. Characteristic of Florence were above all figured textiles with scenes from the New Testament, mostly in two colours. These were used as trimmings for Mass vestments, as on a dalmatic in the Halberstadt Treasury. The gold thread in use in the 15th century disappeared at the beginning of the 16th, when a finer and more compact silver thread took its place. Among the most precious products of this school are the panels depicting the life of St John the Baptist in Florence Cathedral, designed by Antonio Pollaiuolo between 1466 and 1473. Magnificent too are the embroideries of the antependium of S. Maria Novella, said to have been designed by Domenico Ghirlandaio. A work of certain date (1475) is the antependium in S. Francesco at Assisi, offered by Sixtus IV, in the centre of which St Francis is seen kneeling. Equally precious is the gold dalmatic woven for King Matthias Corvinus and bearing his coat of arms (1458–90).
In the northern countries during the 15th century figured textiles held an important place. The great series which Louis I of Anjou ordered in Paris for the chapel of his castle at Angers, completed around 1470, constitutes the first evidence of a genre of which Arras became the principal centre of production. The four representations of the lives of Sts Piat and Eleutherius, executed in 1402 in the workshop of Pierrot Feré for Tournai Cathedral, belong to the capital works of the early period of this art. Most of the tapestries ordered by the dukes of Burgundy were also made in Tournai. This art is magnificently represented by the series of four large hunting tapestries owned by the Duke of Devonshire. Alongside these are representations drawn from Nordic mythology, such as the tapestry in the Doria Palace in Rome, dated 1459. The most splendid series is the famous Lady and the Unicorn tapestries (c. 1510), from the castle of Boussac, now in the Musée de Cluny in Paris.
With the end of the 15th century the workshops of Brussels began production, and examples of their work are found throughout Europe: in Florence, Milan, Madrid and Paris. Smaller but very beautiful tapestries were also produced by Rhenish workshops such as those at Mainz (Cathedral Museum), Strasbourg, Basel, Constance and in some cases by workshops in central Germany, such as Nuremberg (Germanic Museum).
In the 16th century production spread to Italy, where it became somewhat more industrial, although Italian textiles continued to be among the finest in Europe. Alongside Florence and Venice large factories now appeared at Milan, Como, Reggio Emilia, Bologna, Genoa and Catania. Yet Venetian textiles continued to be among the most sought-after and were even imitated in Russia. Venice, for its part, copied Persian and Oriental motifs in turn. The Italian factories were then the principal suppliers to all the princely courts of Europe, and Henry IV of England as well as the Queen of France placed substantial orders in Florence. Magnificent examples are also to be found in this period in the great cathedral treasuries of Rome, Florence, Cortona, Perugia, Siena, San Gimignano, Venice, Milan and Vercelli, to name only the most important centres, as well as in the major museum collections of textiles. Here too the paintings of the great masters of the day, especially in portraits, provide excellent reproductions of textiles. Suffice it to recall the works of Pontormo, Bronzino, Tintoretto and Paolo Veronese.
With the spread of Spanish fashion, which involved rich pleating, it became necessary to seek a textile with a fine design, while for wall and furnishing textiles larger motifs were employed. Above all, the pomegranate motif was transformed in the Renaissance style and sometimes replaced by vase forms. There still remained, it is true, a symmetrical arrangement, but the large masses generally expanded and a tangle of curved branches covered the whole surface. Among the scrolls there also appeared quadrupeds and birds, and sometimes monograms and coats of arms. Larger motifs appear in the great wall textiles in velvet and silk which depict trophies of arms, vases and musical instruments or grotesques. To these large wall textiles belong borders with animals, hunting scenes or interlaced branches. For adorning sacred vestments, however, special textiles with Christian figurations were made, especially in Florence.
In these 16th-century textiles the Italian weavers employed the most varied techniques. Alongside brocaded velvets there are damasks with similar designs, as well as brocades in silk and half-silk. A characteristic type of fabric still preserved in numerous originals and in many paintings, especially for tablecloths and handkerchiefs, are the simple linen damasks with figured designs of animals, often flattened and confronted, or of vases and flowers. Perugia was, in the 15th and 16th centuries, the principal centre for the production of these textiles, though similar fabrics appear to have been made in Germany as well.
Even in the Near East, a revival of textile art was seen in the 16th century. While the influence of Venice on these manufactures is clear, one can also observe in Italy a return of Oriental and Turkish motifs. Under the Safavid dynasty, the arts flourished again, and several manufacturing centers are known, among which Isfahan, with its court manufactures, seems to have been preeminent. Notable as well are Kâshân and, for the production of velvets, especially Yazd in southern Persia. Magnificent gold and silver brocades, silks, and velvets are known from these manufactures. These were used especially for garments, but there were also tapestry fabrics. Figurative representations with pairs of lovers or single figures with ornamental motifs were repeated across the surface of the fabric. Silk embroidery with extremely lively scenes reminiscent of contemporary miniatures also flourished.
In the Ottoman era, strong Persian influences are noted in Turkish textile art, particularly in Bursa and Scutari. The velvets and brocades from these manufactures were sought after in Europe. The characteristic motif of these precious fabrics, seen in countless Venetian paintings, is that of three large heraldically arranged crescents, palmettes, and pointed ovals with pomegranates. These fabrics were mostly used for clothing and are today found in nearly all major museums.
It appears that velvet production was introduced to China from Persia, though it only developed there in the 17th century, while under the Ming dynasty (1368–1644) silk weaving flourished especially. The export of these fabrics to Europe, however, became significant only later, under K’ang Hsi (1662–1722) and Ch’en Lung (1736–95), and they exerted a broad influence on Italian and French production.
The strong export of Italian fabrics in the 15th century, both to northern Europe and the East, not only persisted but increased in the 16th century, so that the manufactures of Florence, Lucca, Genoa, Bologna, Milan, and above all Venice became extraordinarily flourishing. Local manufactures in these countries imitated motifs from Italy. The pomegranate motif remained the most fashionable of the period, though its pointed oval contour was transformed into ornamental scrolls. Vases from which flowers and fruits emerged also appeared, along with new motifs from the East, which in turn adopted Italian motifs. Brocades and velvets were particularly sought after for their combination of gold and satin, catering to the splendor of Renaissance courts. Damasks, silk fabrics, and half-silk fabrics were also in demand. Cotton and wool were used alongside silk, especially for linings. Garment fabrics featured smaller designs, while ecclesiastical brocades and velvets retained the older large-scale patterns. The most important tapestry fabrics, in velvet or silk, imitated architectural motifs with trophies, vases, and floral designs.
From the late 16th century, but especially in the 17th, the demand for tapestry fabrics increased both for domestic use and, above all, for churches (pillar coverings). Alongside the large manufactures of Venice and Genoa, smaller workshops also became active. The old pomegranate motif remained the preferred ornament, though designs were often simplified through hot-iron stamping to reduce costs. Alongside large motifs, smaller ones soon came into vogue, and one or two differently colored warps gave velvet fabrics a colorful effect. In brocades and damasks, designs now ran across the entire width. Similar fabrics inspired by Italian models were also found in Spain in the 16th and 17th centuries, dominated by the pomegranate motif, though Moorish motifs still exerted their influence. The ornaments here were raised by the weave on a satin or brocade ground, with gold and silver rings to achieve a more sumptuous effect.
From the time of Louis XIV, French silk weaving began its triumphal rise, and the manufactures of Lyon assumed an important place in Europe. The fashion for color greatly enriched and refined designs, to which artists like Daniel Marot contributed. Distinct differences can be seen between fabrics for men and women, as men’s garments favored small motifs such as scattered flowers, while women’s wide skirts with long trains required large-scale designs. Silk fabrics were also strongly influenced by lace patterns, whose industry was widely encouraged, especially by Colbert. In the second half of the 18th century, however, symmetry disappeared from designs, and vegetal ornaments were scattered irregularly across the surface. Particularly fashionable, as in architecture and porcelain, were the so-called *chinoiseries*. The introduction of such motifs was largely due to the influence of Madame de Pompadour, who ordered the East India Company to import Chinese goods. Even more richly decorated were furniture coverings, tapestry fabrics, and curtains.
The first excavations at Pompeii (1748) and the interest they aroused in classical art also influenced textile artists. They inspired especially the classical-style tapestry fabrics for furniture. Landscapes, small paintings, and putti enlivened the pillar-like stripes. One of the greatest masters was Philippe de Lasalle (1723–1803) of the silk manufacture of Pernon in Lyon, who worked for the courts of France and Russia. Jean Revel was one of the most renowned pattern designers. After the Revolution, Napoleon revived the textile industry of Lyon, and J. E. Bony (d. 1825) became one of its finest designers. Yet textile art declined with the mechanization of technique by C. M. Jacquard, who introduced the mechanical loom to Lyon in 1805.
Despite strong French competition, Italy maintained its production in the 17th and 18th centuries. Venice and Genoa continued to produce their famous velvets and silks; Venetian manufactures also became renowned in this period for their red velvets, dominated by the large pomegranate motif. Particularly sought after, both in Italy and abroad, was the red velvet on gold from Genoa. Even the smaller manufactures of Piedmont, Emilia, and Lucca produced magnificent fabrics, especially those with floral designs. For garments and furnishings, as in France, smaller-scale patterns were mostly used.
In the 18th century, the influence of French textile art became even more evident, particularly in Turin and Genoa, where Chinese influences were also again apparent. Venetian fashion is conveyed by the paintings of local artists such as Tiepolo and Vittore Ghislandi, but magnificent examples of large tapestry fabrics are still found today in the palaces of Venice, Genoa, or Palermo. For Italy too, the great era of textile art closed with the Napoleonic era.