SABA. — Name of a state in ancient Yemen. Mentions of S. are found in several passages of the Old Testament: besides some genealogical notes, there is an account of the homage paid by a queen of S. to Solomon (I Reg. 10:1–13; II Par. 9:1–12). Other brief indirect information comes from Assyrian inscriptions of the eighth century B.C., which likewise report the homage paid by Sabaean chiefs: it is probable that these refer to colonies of northern Arabia. Finally, from the third century B.C. onward, classical writers too speak of the Sabaeans and of the fabulous wealth of their land (“Arabia Felix”).
Beginning in the middle of the last century, Yemen (v.), which has continued to the present day (with the very recent expeditions of Albright and Ryckmans), has brought to light a series of direct sources concerning the ancient Sabaean state: these consist, in addition to monuments, of numerous inscriptions in alphabetic characters and in a Semitic language, containing especially historical and architectural information or votive and funerary dedications. The oldest documents date from the eighth century B.C.; they present a theocratic state, governed by “priest-kings” (mkrb, generally vocalized mukarrib) and composed of tribes gathered into religious communities under the patronage of their own deities; a popular assembly assisted the mukarrib
in legislative functions. The capital of the state was Şirwāh, and later Mārib. Around the fifth century B.C., a secular regime, centered on kings, took its place; the assembly remained, and special hereditary magistrates (habīr) were charged with overseeing the application of the laws among the tribes. Around 50 B.C. (according to the “low” chronology that has recently gained acceptance, although with varying degrees of qualification), S. absorbed the neighboring state of Qatābān, which in turn had annexed the kingdom of the Minaeans; the kings assumed the title of “S. and Dū Rajdān” and transferred the capital to Zafār. As the territory expanded, the importance of the habīr increased; they became great landowners, while the popular assembly disappeared. The ascendancy of the Himyarite tribe explains why classical sources often designate the Sabaeans by that name (Homerites). In the third century A.D., Hadramūt too was annexed by S., which thus unified Yemen under its rule. However, Ethiopian attacks from the opposite coast, together with internal dissensions following the introduction of Judaism and Christianity, brought about the decline of the state: after a temporary occupation in the fourth century A.D., it fell definitively under Ethiopia in 525.
South Arabian inscriptions provide information on the religious life of the Sabaeans and, in particular, on their pantheon, headed by a lunar god (Almaqāb), a solar goddess (Sams), and a god of the planet Venus ('Aṭṭar). As for art, remains of religious and civil buildings have been brought to light (the dam of Mārib is famous), together with generally crude and primitive sculptures and good examples of the minor arts.