SHAMANISM. — From the Tungus shaman, a word perhaps imported from the Pali «samana», shamanism is a magical-religious phenomenon currently observable, in its classical form, among the peoples of Central and Northern Asia, and variously widespread on all continents among peoples of differing cultural levels. Shamanism may be regarded as a technique that places the person who practices it in a state of ecstasy and communion with supernatural powers (generally spirits of the dead, demons, and spirits of nature), so that he may avail himself of their own power without, however, becoming their instrument. Only exceptionally are shamans possessed by spirits.
Because of the intensity of their religious experience, shamans are clearly distinguished from the individuals of the community to which they belong. Shamanic power is acquired principally in two ways. The first consists in the hereditary transmission of that power, which may occur either from father to son (e.g., among certain peoples of California), from grandfather to grandson (e.g., in Manchuria, where the son, who is responsible for providing for his father’s needs, cannot himself become a shaman), or from uncle to nephew (in matriarchal societies). The second consists in spontaneous vocation or election by the divinity. For example, among the eastern Ostyaks, shamanism is a gift from heaven received at birth. It may also happen that individuals
from 1927. He was an honorary doctor of the Universities of Paris, Strasbourg, Prague, Turin, and Cairo.
His intellect enabled him to engage in the most diverse fields. A jurist, he was an eminent master both in the historical disciplines and in the laws in force; he took part in codification work in Italy and abroad, founded and directed the Bullettino dell'Istituto di diritto romano of the University of
spontaneously become shamans (e.g., among the Altaic peoples), or through the will of their father (among the Tungus and other peoples). In the latter case, however, shamans are less powerful. The acquisition of the title of shaman takes place after a preparatory period during which the novice, under the guidance of one or more senior shamans, learns mystical techniques and tribal religious traditions. This period generally ends with ceremonies called the «initiation of the shaman», during which the initiate is subjected to various trials to demonstrate that he has truly acquired the particular powers inherent in his new position. Such trials may consist in walking on fire, entering into communication with spirits, demonstrating that he is under the protection of a guardian spirit, ascending to heaven (through the rainbow, by means of a rope, a tree, a ladder, or simply by flight), making a journey into the afterlife, etc. During the preparatory period the novice also generally learns a secret language, which he must use during séances to communicate with the supernatural beings he has evoked (e.g., among the Eskimos, the populations of Arctic and Subarctic Asia, the Semang, the Mentawei, the Caribs, the Salish, etc.).
The shaman’s powers are various. He is a healer (he is often designated by the term medicine man), but his activity is directed above all toward the soul. He diagnoses and treats the patient’s soul when it attempts to escape from the body; he tracks it down and returns it to its owner. As a conductor of souls, the shaman also has the function of accompanying the dead to the underworld. The deceased whom he guides are usually those who do not wish to leave this world.
Shamanic healing may also consist in expelling the «evil» spirit that has entered the sick person: an act which he often performs with the help of auxiliary spirits, threats, noises, etc. The struggle against evil spirits is often dangerous and tires the shaman. For example, among the Eskimos, misfortunes are frequently considered to be caused by the violation of some taboo that angers the Mother of marine mammals: the shaman then undertakes a journey into the depths of the sea to placate that divinity. At times it is believed that the cause of illness is the introduction into the victim’s body, by a shaman or by spirits, of harmful objects: the task of the healing shaman is to extract the object. The most common method of extraction is suction. In his role as healer, however, the shaman does not always resort to magical powers: he also knows and uses the medicinal properties of plants and animals, practices massage, etc.
The shaman is also charged with safeguarding the community from collective as well as individual ills and dangers: that is, discovering the mystical causes of epidemics, famines, etc.; indicating the remedies for curing them and the means of avoiding them. For the benefit of the community, the shaman exercises other powers as well, such as stopping storms (Eskimos) and causing or bringing rain to an end (North America).
By virtue of the power of clairvoyance—which forms part of their mystical techniques—shamans can search for lost people, animals, and objects, identify thieves and criminals, and ultimately become leaders of their people and prophets, like Wowoka and those who initiated anti-Western religious and political movements in North America. Among the shaman’s extraordinary powers are also levitation, mastery of fire (in addition to walking on burning coals, as mentioned above, placing burning charcoal in the mouth, touching red-hot irons, etc.), allowing any part of the body to be pierced by cutting weapons or firearm projectiles without suffering injury, etc.
933-55; 23 (1928), pp. 538-60, 567-86; W. Z. Park, Shamanism in Western North America. A study of cultural relationship, North Western University, Eversstone-Chicago 1938; A. Ohlmakers, Studien zum Problem des Schamanismus, Lund-Copenhagen 1939; K. N. Chadwick, Poetry and Prophecy, Cambridge 1942; A. Metraux, Le shamanisme chez les indiens de l'Amérique du Sud tropicale, in Acta Americana, 2 (1944), pp. 197-219, 320-41; S. F. Nadel, A study of shamanism in the Nuba Mountains, in Journal of the Royal Anthropological Institute, 76 (1946), pp. 25-37; E. De Martino, Il mondo magico, prolegamenti ad una storia del magismo, Turin 1947; M. Bouteiller, Don shamanistique et adaptation à la vie chez les indiens de l'Amérique du Nord, in Journal de la Soc. des Américanistes, new series, 39 (1950), pp. 1-14; id., Chamanisme et guérison magique, Paris 1950, p. 377; E. Mirces, Le shamanisme et les techniques archaïques de l'extase, Paris 1951, pp. 1-447. Tullio Tentori