AFFRE, DENIS-AUGUSTE

AFFRE, DENIS-AUGUSTE. — Archbishop of Paris, b. at Saint-Romme-de-Tarn on 28 Sept. 1793, d. in Paris on 26 June 1848. Ordained priest on 16 May 1818, he entered the Sulpicians and in 1819 was entrusted with teaching theology at the seminary of Paris. Almoner of the Maternity (1810), in 1821 he founded the journal *La France chrétienne*, where he began that campaign on the rights and interests of the clergy and on the necessity of a reform of ecclesiastical discipline which was to outline the lines of his constant action in the episcopate: first as vicar of the dioceses of Luçon (1822), Amiens (1822) and Paris (1834), then as coadjutor of the Bishop of Strasbourg (1839), and finally as Archbishop of Paris (consecrated on 6 Aug. 1840). At a time so difficult in the political life of France, A. knew how to maintain an attitude of absolute independence from the State. But his action in favor of the diocese was cut short by his tragic death, which occurred while he was performing an act of peace between opposing factions during the June 1848 disturbances.

Among his writings: *Traité de l'administration temporelle des paroisses* (Amiens 1826); *Essai historique et critique sur la suprématie temporelle des Papes* (ibid. 1829), against Lamennais; *Introduction philosophique à l'étude du christianisme* (Paris 1844); *De l'appel comme d'abus, son origine, ses progrès et son état présent* (Paris 1845).

FRESCO. — This term designates any mural painting executed with pigments dissolved in water on a thin layer of “fresh” plaster, usually applied over a much thicker and rougher layer called the arriccio. During the chemical transformation of calcium hydroxide into carbonate, the pigment becomes integral with the plaster, thus ensuring the painting’s durability, a durability unattainable by other techniques. Hence fresco is supremely suited to large-scale monumental decoration.

Since the work must be carried out while the plaster is still damp, the painter needs a sure grasp of spatial relationships, a deft touch, and speed without hesitation. Up to the fourteenth century, artists calculated the space to be decorated through skilful and complex divisions; later, the composition was drawn on a cartoon and then transferred to the plaster by tracing the outlines. Although the technique’s essential characteristics remained constant, its execution varied considerably according to the period and the artist’s aims.

The artists of the catacombs appear to have executed their works with a thick, dense paint mixture, rapid juxtaposition of hues, and without outlines, in a manner that the ancients called *compendiaria*, very similar to our impressionism. Later, outlines became more pronounced, defining areas that were filled with flat color. Until the Byzantine influence prevailed, i.e., until the 13th century, it was customary to apply the darker tone to the plaster and then bring out the half-tones and highlights in light or white while the layer was still damp. Dry-point highlights are very rare; however, the final glazes are quite stable as they were applied with very dense color. Through Cennini, we know the technique of 14th-century fresco painters, who prepared their work in *verdeterra*, first seeking the modeling by hatching the shadows and lights, and then refining with flesh tones and black outlines. This method, which allowed for the luminous transparency of many 14th-century works or the subtle chromatic nuances of International Gothic, was greatly simplified by the leading masters. Giotto used thick, dense color mixtures directly, while Simone Martini employed an almost uniform wash. Masaccio also worked with an immediate and rapid technique, whereas Paolo Uccello returned to the traditional preparation in *terra verde*, and Baldovinetti largely finished his works in tempera. Leonardo’s *Last Supper* is more a painting executed in tempera on waxy stucco than a true fresco; hence its unfortunate deterioration. Michelangelo’s technique is strikingly vigorous, as he used complex impastos directly and then veiled them irregularly. Raphael’s technique is equally admirable, blending the body of the color with very fluid tones that convey the transparency of the hues. Correggio, on the other hand, sketched in solid form and then juxtaposed different glazes to achieve atmospheric vibrations. Veronese refined his works with brilliant brushstrokes and drew luminosity from their contrast with blacks. In the 17th century, the already widespread practice of finishing in tempera—condemned by Vasari—spread with the aim of achieving, through a dense and impenetrable (and consequently opaque) color, effects similar to the luminosity of oil painting. Notable examples include the Neapolitan works of Battistello or the Roman works of Cortona, Pozzo, or

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**FRESCO**

**FRESCO — Julius II. Detail of the fresco of the Miracle of Bolsena (1512) in Raphael’s Rooms — Vatican.**
**AFFRESCO - Gioia di San Lorenzo.**

**AFFRESCO - Gioia di San Lorenzo.**

**FRESCO — Joy of San Lorenzo.**

**Fresco — Joy of San Lorenzo.**
**AFFRESCO - Gioia di San Lorenzo.**

**AFFRESCO - Gioìa di San Lorenzo.**

**AFFRESCO - Gioìa di San Lorenzo.**

**AFFRESCO - Gioìa di Sant'Antonio.**

**AFFRESCO - Gioìa di Sant'Antonio.**

**AFFRESCO - Gioìa di Sant’Antonio.**

**AFFRESCO - Gioìa di Sant’Antonio.**

**AFFRESCO - Gioìa dì Sant’Antonio.**

**AFFRESCO - Gioìa dì Sant’Antonio.**

**AFFRESCO - Gìoìa dì Sant’Antonio.**

**AFFRESCO - Gìoìa dì Sant’Antonio.**