MEDIA (Assyrian mát Ma-da-a-a). — Northwest part of the Iranian plateau, between the Araxes, the Caspian Sea, the central desert, the borders of Persis and Susiana (Elam), and the chains of the Zagros: a country with a relatively dense population even from prehistoric times, which, after the Medes had established their dominance there, determined the history of the 1st millennium B.C.
The country was well suited as the foundation of a great power: “good in men and horses,” rich in metals and skilled craftsmen in the “cities” or rather small boroughs. But the backbone of the people were the shepherds, vigorous and fierce. The few true cities were at the crossroads of caravan routes: such as Ecbatana (Hangmatana), controlling trade toward the west, and Raga (south of Tehran), controlling trade toward the north and east.
Knowledge of the history of Media is based on fragmentary sources: Avestan literature (especially the yast and yasna; vague indications, except for the Vitedvad, “Antidemon Law”), Greek accounts (partly fabulous), and Assyrian annals (the richest in information). Excavated sites and the practical illustration they provide for chronology and history are still lacking.
The language of the Medes is known only from proper names; it was close to Persian, so much so that interpreters were unnecessary, and also to that of the Scythians, the Sakai (in southern Russia and Siberia), and the Indo-Aryans; apart from this, it was very eastern within the Indo-European family. The religion was, at least in part, monotheistic.
How was the region occupied by the Medes (from the 13th to the 9th century B.C.)? Even in the 9th and 8th centuries, proper names from that region represent a mixture of Subarean, Aramaic, and Median names; and as vassals of the great king of Nineveh, some even assumed an Assyrian name. It was a large-scale migration in which the “feudal” system of the shepherds of Central Asia played a role: the leaders of the hordes with their horsemen came to occupy the towers and castles from which local rulers already established in the land controlled the valleys, and became their successors. Behind them came the shepherds and flocks, which mingled with the indigenous population of shepherds and sedentary people. Later, in a peaceful manner, families of newly arrived lords and indigenous lords united; in this mingling, the Medes gained the upper hand.
In the pre-imperial period, the country therefore lacked political unity. There were only demana (“house”), vis (“tribe”), and fouthra (“district”), but not yet dalyu (“land”), all dominated by the arijaman, the “cavaliers” (Assyrian with the epithet dannutu = “the strong”), the ruling class that had established itself over the lvaeatu and verezena, the lower classes. For this reason, the Assyrians had to deal only with the petty kings, i.e., the “feudal” lords controlling some trade routes, and thus more influential. These easily submitted when an Assyrian army approached, only to live in full freedom when it withdrew. The Assyrians knew how to remedy this situation by founding colonies and making part of Media one of their provinces; however, they never managed to organize it effectively, let alone establish its borders.
The first Assyrian incursion is reported by Shalmaneser III in 836: a certain number of petty kings of the land of Mada submitted, southeast of Lake Urmia. A century later (737), Tiglath-Pileser III penetrated as far as the “Lapis-lazuli Mountain,” the majestic Demavend north of Tehran. After Samaria was taken by Sargon (722 B.C.), part of the Israelites was deported “to the cities of M.”, i.e., to the Assyrian colonies in the province of Media. Sargon also, in 715, deported the Median petty king Daiakku to Hamah in Syria, along with his vassal horsemen. The Greeks made him the founder of the Median dynasty under the name Deioces.
The true founder of the dynasty, however, was Cyaxares I (Uakfatar). Still paying tribute to Sargon (in 714), under Sennacherib he began to attack and plunder the Assyrian colonies around Harhar, in the Zagros (in 702). Then the invasion of the Gimmirrai and Isguzai (Cimmerians and Scythians) damaged both sides: Assyria lost the regions around Lake Urmia, noted for breeding fine horses, and, seeking to remedy this, carried out extensive raids in Media, penetrating as far as the land of Patufarri, on the shores of the salt waters of the Central Lake, especially carrying off the numerous herds of horses.
The founder of the Median Empire can be considered Kshathrita or Phraortes (Fravartis), originally petty king of Kar Kašši, who reigned from 675 to 653. Besides systematically attacking the Assyrian colonies, he succeeded in establishing a stable understanding between the Medes and the Cimmerians, directed against Assyria. He even managed to make Āriyāramna, son of Ĥaḥamīs (from whom the Achaemenid dynasty descends), his vassal; Āriyāramna had introduced his Persians into Persis, as he recounted on a gold tablet, then brought to Ecbatana, already magnificently fortified (cf. the Book of Judith). Finally, Phraortes risked battle with Ashurbanipal and lost both the battle and his life (653); the Persians became independent.
Media rose again under Cyaxares II (c. 625–585), who, combining Scythian and Assyrian techniques, reorganized the Median army to perfection, dividing it into spearmen, archers, and cavalry. Assyrian incursions ceased immediately. Cyaxares once again subdued Persia (Persis and Anshan), despite Assyrian sovereignty. He even descended from the Zagros mountains to besiege Nineveh. But Sîn-šar-iškun managed to move his “Scythian” allies against him (thus Greek sources; perhaps more accurately, one should think of the people of the Ummān Manda, then entering history). It seems that Cyaxares was forced to submit to them. But already in 616 he freed himself, partly winning them over, formed an alliance with Nabopolassar, who had then taken all of Babylonia from Assyria, and carried the war into enemy territory. The alliance meant that the final hour of Assyria had struck.
The following wars show Media as the greatest power of the time, and to it are owed the subsequent successes: the conquest of the city of Assur in 614, of Nineveh in 612, of Haran, the last Assyrian stronghold, taken in 610 and defended in the following years. The alliance was sealed by the marriage of Nebuchadnezzar to Amyāha, and Media received Assyria and the northern territories. In other military expeditions, Cyaxares subdued the Carduchians, between the Caspian and Elburz, and even the Parthians, in eastern Iran. A long war with Alyattes of Lydia (590–585) ended in a compromise peace, extending Media as far as the Halys. An alliance was also made with Lydia, and Cyaxares gave another daughter in marriage to Croesus, the creditor prince, later the last king of Lydia on the throne of Sardis.
Soon after its peak, Median power collapsed. Astyages (v. ASIA), the last king, gave his daughter Mandane in marriage to Cambyses I, his vassal of Persia. From this union was born Cyrus (v.) the Great, who ascended the throne of Persia in 559. His ambitions were not only for independence but even for the throne of Media. Having secured the loyalty of all his land and certain Median tribes, he formed an alliance with Nabonidus, who went to attack Haran, then in Median possession. In 553 Cyrus was summoned by Astyages to the court of Ecbatana; he did not appear, which meant rebellion, and Astyages marched an army against him. But Astyages’ army revolted against its leader, took him prisoner, and led him to Cyrus, who hastened to Ecbatana to seize his treasures.
Thus in 550 the independence of the Medes ended. Media became the first satrapy. But the Persians considered it part of their homeland, and the Medes enjoyed the same rights and honors as the Persians, with the highest offices accessible to them. Ecbatana remained a favored residence of the Achaemenid kings.