SPORT

SPORT. — An English term now in common use in the Italian language; it derives from the older Italian *disporto*, which in turn comes from Old French *desport*, related to the Italian *diporto* (Decameron, VIII, 7); cf. Late Latin *disportare*, *desportare*, from the classical *deportare*.

In its primitive sense, it denoted diversion, recreation, or amusement. Indeed, the spread of the term, which is relatively recent (19th century), is used in a general sense to designate games, exercises of strength and skill, whether individual or collective, usually practiced outdoors. By the 20th century, particularly after the First World War, the term has assumed the most varied and often contradictory aspects, retaining little or nothing of the original meaning and ancient exercises. At present, it is not possible to express it with a single precise definition.

Mosso (Mens sana in corpore sano, Milan 1903, p. 97) had proposed rendering the term "s." with the Greek-derived word *agonistica*, which is undoubtedly more closely aligned with the current inner meaning of "s."; however, the proposal did not gain acceptance.

Today, the "phenomenon" of sport exists at least in four distinct aspects:

a) As a "state of mind." Millions of individuals of every race and religious faith, under every form of government, crowd sporting venues as spectators to admire and follow the fortunes of their champions, seeing in the struggles of the "athletes" the instinct for primacy so vivid in most individuals. A vast press and a whole new literature sustain this "tendency," which, if nothing else, has the great merit of distracting millions of people with harmless spectacles.

b) As "recreation": that is, as a reaction to the ever-growing mechanization of civilization and as an antidote to daily labor through systematic physical activity aimed at developing muscular abilities and refreshing the spirit. This is the most widespread category of sports enthusiasts, the healthiest, encompassing all social classes, ranging from hikers to practitioners of true gymnastic exercises, without any thought of "achievement." It is the activity recommended for everyone, particularly for those who, having reached maturity, wish to preserve a certain physical well-being. To achieve the desired benefits, this physical activity must be chosen according to one's own needs (biotypological), always taking into account "health conditions," rather than personal inclinations, as is commonly done.

c) As "amateurism": that is, for the affirmation of one's personality through a higher ideal; to the element of "recreation" is added the "agonistic" character, i.e., the "combative spirit" in sporting trials, the "aspiration to primacy," and "specialization." Amateurism is the purest expression of sport and finds its highest manifestation in the Olympic Games (q.V. below). Amateur activity is that which most appeals to the young, and, provided that the physical and moral integrity of the participants is preserved, it should be encouraged and spread, since agonism, when "ethical," is an active element in the educational process; indeed, track and field athletics, which is the queen of amateurism, when practiced with bio-psycho-pedagogical criteria, is part of physical education, as are many other sports (q.V. EDUCATION, X. Physical Education).

d) As "professionalism": it is exaggerated agonism, which often produces daring and generous feats for the honor of the flag or other ideals, but which sometimes degenerates into acrobatics in pursuit of large earnings or great fame. These athletes practice their art using all the qualities of their bodies without any regard for it, often exaggerating natural flaws to the detriment of that equilibrium which should be the constant goal of everyone.

The rise of a veritable sports industry has greatly contributed to the spread of professional sport. Machine and man, technical perfection and human skill and intelligence, fused into a harmonious whole, mark the continuous progress of some important aspects of contemporary civilization.

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I. SPORTS ACTIVITIES

The so-called sports activities are many; most of them are linked to the varied traditions of all peoples.

Below is an outline of the most internationally recognized sports, with those marked by an asterisk being those practiced at the Olympic Games.

1. Track and Field

Running: 100 m, 200 m, 400 m, 800 m, 1,500 m, 5,000 m, 10,000 m, marathon (42,195 m); hurdles: 110 m, 200 m, 400 m, 3,000 m steeplechase; relays: 4 × 100 m, 4 × 400 m; jumps: high jump, long jump, triple jump, pole vault; throws: discus, shot put, javelin, hammer.

2. Weightlifting

Freestyle wrestling* (categories: flyweight, bantamweight, featherweight, lightweight, welterweight, middleweight, light heavyweight, heavyweight); Greco-Roman wrestling* (categories: flyweight, bantamweight, featherweight, lightweight, welterweight, middleweight, light heavyweight, heavyweight); weightlifting* (categories: bantamweight, featherweight, lightweight, middleweight, light heavyweight, heavyweight). Other weightlifting exercises include Japanese wrestling or *jiu-jitsu*; Irish wrestling (*Glima*); Swiss wrestling (*Schwingen*); Turkish wrestling (*Türk Güresi*).

3. Gymnastics*: Men's (rings, pommel horse, floor exercise, parallel bars, vault, horizontal bar, individual all-around, team competition); Women's (small apparatus, floor exercise, parallel bars, vault, beam, individual all-around, team competition).

4. Modern Pentathlon* (equestrian jumping with 15 obstacles, fencing, pistol shooting at a human silhouette, 300 m freestyle swimming, approximately 4,000 m cross-country running).

5. Combat Sports

Boxing* (categories: flyweight, bantamweight, featherweight, lightweight, welterweight, middleweight, light heavyweight, heavyweight); Fencing* (men's: foil, sabre, épée, individual and team; women's: foil); French boxing (*savate*); Shooting (free pistol, clay pigeon, free rifle, silhouette, running deer, small-bore rifle, small-caliber rifle); Archery; Skeet; Hunting; Tauromachy (bullfighting).

6. Equestrian Sports

Horse racing includes races for harnessed or ridden horses (flat racing, harness racing, steeplechase, etc.); Polo.

Winter sports. — Ice discus* (Hockey). *Guidolistita** (bob): skeleton, two-man, four-man. Skating*: men’s, women’s, pairs, speed: 500 m, 1500 m, 2000 m, 3000 m, 4000 m, 5000 m, 6000 m, 7000 m, 8000 m, 9000 m, 10000 m, 11000 m, 12000 m, 13000 m, 14000 m, 15000 m, 16000 m, 17000 m, 18000 m, 19000 m, 20000 m, 21000 m, 22000 m, 23000 m, 24000 m, 25000 m, 26000 m, 27000 m, 28000 m, 29000 m, 30000 m, 31000 m, 32000 m, 33000 m, 34000 m, 35000 m, 36000 m, 37000 m, 38000 m, 39000 m, 40000 m, 41000 m, 42000 m, 43000 m, 44000 m, 45000 m, 46000 m, 47000 m, 48000 m, 49000 m, 50000 m, 51000 m, 52000 m, 53000 m, 54000 m, 55000 m, 56000 m, 57000 m, 58000 m, 59000 m, 60000 m, 61000 m, 62000 m, 63000 m, 64000 m, 65000 m, 66000 m, 67000 m, 68000 m, 69000 m, 70000 m, 71000 m, 72000 m, 73000 m, 74000 m, 75000 m, 76000 m, 77000 m, 78000 m, 79000 m, 80000 m, 81000 m, 82000 m, 83000 m, 84000 m, 85000 m, 86000 m, 87000 m, 88000 m, 89000 m, 90000 m, 91000 m, 92000 m, 93000 m, 94000 m, 95000 m, 96000 m, 97000 m, 98000 m, 99000 m, 100000 m, 101000 m, 102000 m, 103000 m, 104000 m, 105000 m, 106000 m, 107000 m, 108000 m, 109000 m, 110000 m, 111000 m, 112000 m, 113000 m, 114000 m, 115000 m, 116000 m, 117000 m, 118000 m, 119000 m, 120000 m, 121000 m, 122000 m, 123000 m, 124000 m, 125000 m, 126000 m, 127000 m, 128000 m, 129000 m, 130000 m, 131000 m, 132000 m, 133000 m, 134000 m, 135000 m, 136000 m, 137000 m, 138000 m, 139000 m, 140000 m, 141000 m, 142000 m, 143000 m, 144000 m, 145000 m, 146000 m, 147000 m, 148000 m, 149000 m, 150000 m, 151000 m, 152000 m, 153000 m, 154000 m, 155000 m, 156000 m, 157000 m, 158000 m, 159000 m, 160000 m, 161000 m, 162000 m, 163000 m, 164000 m, 165000 m, 166000 m, 167000 m, 168000 m, 169000 m, 170000 m, 171000 m, 172000 m, 173000 m, 174000 m, 175000 m, 176000 m, 177000 m, 178000 m, 179000 m, 180000 m, 181000 m, 182000 m, 183000 m, 184000 m, 185000 m, 186000 m, 187000 m, 188000 m, 189000 m, 190000 m, 191000 m, 192000 m, 193000 m, 194000 m, 195000 m, 196000 m, 197000 m, 198000 m, 199000 m, 200000 m, 201000 m, 202000 m, 203000 m, 204000 m, 205000 m, 206000 m, 207000 m, 208000 m, 209000 m, 210000 m, 211000 m, 212000 m, 213000 m, 214000 m, 215000 m, 216000 m, 217000 m, 218000 m, 219000 m, 220000 m, 221000 m, 222000 m, 223000 m, 224000 m, 225000 m, 226000 m, 227000 m, 228000 m, 229000 m, 230000 m, 231000 m, 232000 m, 233000 m, 234000 m, 235000 m, 236000 m, 237000 m, 238000 m, 239000 m, 240000 m, 241000 m, 242000 m, 243000 m, 244000 m, 245000 m, 246000 m, 247000 m, 248000 m, 249000 m, 250000 m, 251000 m, 252000 m, 253000 m, 254000 m, 255000 m, 256000 m, 257000 m, 258000 m, 259000 m, 260000 m, 261000 m, 262000 m, 263000 m, 264000 m, 265000 m, 266000 m, 267000 m, 268000 m, 269000 m, 270000 m, 271000 m, 272000 m, 273000 m, 274000 m, 275000 m, 276000 m, 277000 m, 278000 m, 279000 m, 280000 m, 281000 m, 282000 m, 283000 m, 284000 m, 285000 m, 286000 m, 287000 m, 288000 m, 289000 m, 290000 m, 291000 m, 292000 m, 293000 m, 294000 m, 295000 m, 296000 m, 297000 m, 298000 m, 299000 m, 300000 m, 301000 m, 302000 m, 303000 m, 304000 m, 305000 m, 306000 m, 307000 m, 308000 m359000, m. 360000, m. 361000, m. 362000, m. 363000, m. 364000, m. 365000, m. 366000, m. 367000, m. 368000, m. 369000, m. 370000, m. 371000, m. 372000, m. 373000, m. 374000, m. 375000, m. 376000, m. 377000, m. 378000, m. 379000, m. 380000, m. 381000, m. 382000, m. 383000, m. 384000, m. 385000, m. 386000, m. 387000, m. 388000, m. 389000, m. 390000, m. 391000, m. 392000, m. 393000, m. 394000, m. 395000, m. 396000, m. 397000, m. 398000, m. 399000, m. 400000, m. 401000, m. 402000, m. 403000, m. 404000, m. 405000, m. 406000, m. 407000, m. 408000, m. 409000, m. 410000, m. 411000, m. 412000, m. 413000, m. 414000, m. 415000, m. 416000, m. 417000, m. 418000, m. 419000, m. 420000, m. 421000, m. 422000, m. 423000, m. 424000, m. 425000, m. 426000, m. 427000, m. 428000, m. 429000, m. 430000, m. 431000, m. 432000, m. 433000, m. 434000, m. 435000, m. 436000, m. 437000, m. 438000, m. 439000, m. 440000, m. 441000, m. 442000, m. 443000, m. 444000, m. 445000, m. 446000, m. 447000, m. 448000, m. 449000, m. 450000, m. 451000, m. 452000, m. 453000, m. 454000, m. 455000, m. 456000, m. 457000, m. 458000, m. 459000, m. 460000, m. 461000, m. 462000, m. 463000, m. 464000, m. 465000, m. 466000, m. 467000, m. 468000, m. 469000, m. 470000, m. 471000, m. 472000, m. 473000, m. 474000, m. 475000, m. 476000, m. 477000, m. 478000, m. 479000, m. 480000, m. 481000, m. 482000, m. 483000, m. 484000, m. 485000, m. 486000, m. 487000, m. 488000, m. 489000, m. 490000, m. 491000, m. 492000, m. 493000, m. 494000, m. 495000, m. 496000, m. 497000, m. 498000, m. 499000, m. 500000, m. 501000, m. 502000, m. 503000, m. 504000, m. 505000, m. 506000, m. 507000, m. 508000, m. 509000, m. 510000, m. 511000, m. 512000, m. 513000, m. 514000, m. 515000, m. 516000, m. 517000, m. 518000, m. 519000, m. 520000, m. 521000, m. 522000, m. 523000, m. 524000, m. 525000, m. 526000, m. 527000, m. 528000, m. 529000, m. 530000, m. 531000, m. 532000, m. 533000, m. 534000, m. 535000, m. 536000, m. 537000, m. 538000, m. 539000, m. 540000, m. 541000, m. 542000, m. 543000, m. 544000, m. 545000, m. 546000, m. 547000, m. 548000, m. 549000, m. 550000, m. 551000, m. 552000, m. 553000, m. 554000, m. 555000, m. 556000, m. 557000, m. 558000, m. 559000, m. 560000, m. 561000, m. 562000, m. 563000, m. 564000, m. 565000, m. 566000, m. 567000, m. 568000, m. 569000, m. 570000, m. 571000, m. 572000, m. 573000, m. 574000, m. 575000, m. 576000, m. 577000, m. 578000, m. 579000, m. 580000, m. 581000, m. 582000, m. 583000, m. 584000, m. 585000, m. 586000, m. 587000, m. 588000, m. 589000, m. 590000, m. 591000, m. 592000, m. 593000, m. 594000, m. 595000, m. 596000, m. 597000, m. 598000, m. 599000, m. 600000, m. 601000, m. 602000, m. 603000, m. 604000, m. 605000, m. 606000, m. 607000, m. 608000, m. 609000, m. 610000, m. 611000, m. 612000, m. 613000, m. 614000, m. 615000, m. 616000, m. 617000, m. 618000, m. 619000, m. 620000, m. 621000, m. 622000, m. 623000, m. 624000, m. 625000, m. 626000, m. 627000, m. 628000, m. 629000, m. 630000, m. 631000, m. 632000, m. 633000, m. 634000, m. 635000, m. 636000, m. 637000, m. 638000, m. 639000, m. 640000, m. 641000, m. 642000, m. 643000, m. 644000, m. 645000, m. 646000, m. 647000, m. 648000, m. 649000, m. 650000, m. 651000, m. 652000, m. 653000, m. 654000, m. 655000, m. 656000, m. 657000, m. 658000, m. 659000, m. 660000, m. 661000, m. 662000, m. 663000, m. 664000, m. 665000, m. 666000, m. 667000, m. 668000, m. 669000, m. 670000, m. 671000, m. 672000, m. 673000, m. 674000, m. 675000, m. 676000, m. 677000, m. 678000, m. 679000, m. 680000, m. 681000, m. 682000, m. 683000, m. 684000, m. 685000, m. 686000, m. 687000, m. 688000, m. 689000, m. 690000, m. 691000, m. 692000, m. 693000, m. 694000, m. 695000, m. 696000, m. 697000, m. 698000, m. 699000, m. 700000, m. 701000, m. 702000, m. 703000, m. 704000, m. 705000, m. 706000, m. 707000, m. 708000, m. 709000, m. 710000, m. 711000, m. 712000, m. 713000, m. 714000, m. 715000, m. 716000, m. 717000, m. 718000, m. 719000, m. 720000, m. 721000, m. 722000, m. 723000, m. 724000, m. 725000, m. 726000, m. 727000, m. 728000, m. 729000, m. 730000, m. 731000, m. 732000, m. 733000, m. 734000, m. 735000, m. 736000, m. 737000, m. 738000, m. 739000, m. 740000, m. 741000, m. 742000, m. 743000, m. 744000, m. 745000, m. 746000, m. 747000, m. 748000, m. 749000, m. 750000, m. 751000, m. 752000, m. 753000, m. 754000, m. 755000, m. 756000, m. 757000, m. 758000, m. 759000, m. 760000, m. 761000, m. 762000, m. 763000, m. 764000, m. 765000, m. 766000, m. 767000, m. 768000, m. 769000, m. 770000, m. 771000, m. 772000, m. 773000, m. 774000, m. 775000, m. 776000, m. 777000, m. 778000, m. 779000, m. 780000, m. 781000, m. 782000, m. 783000, m. 784000, m. 785000, m. 786000, m. 787000, m. 788000, m. 789000, m. 790000, m. 791000, m. 792000, m. 793000, m. 794000, m. 795000, m. 796000, m. 797000, m. 798000, m. 799000, m. 800000, m. 801000, m. 802000, m. 803000, m. 804000, m. 805000, m. 806000, m. 807000, m. 808000, m. 809000, m. 810000, m. 811000, m. 812000, m. 813000, m. 814000, m. 815000, m. 816000, m. 817000, m. 818000, m. 819000, m. 820000, m. 821000, m. 822000, m. 823000, m. 824000, m. 825000, m. 826000, m. 827000, m. 828000, m. 829000, m. 830000, m. 831000, m. 832000, m. 833000, m. 834000, m. 835000, m. 836000, m. 837000, m. 838000, m. 839000, m. 840000, m. 841000, m. 842000, m. 843000, m. 844000, m. 845000, m. 846000, m. 847000, m. 848000, m. 849000, m. 850000, m. 851000, m. 852000, m. 853000, m. 854000, m. 855000, m. 856000, m. 857000, m. 858000, m. 859000, m. 860000, m. 861000, m. 862000, m. 863000, m. 864000, m. 865000, m. 866000, m. 867000, m. 868000, m. 869000, m. 870000, m. 871000, m. 872000, m. 873000, m. 874000, m. 875000, m. 876000, m. 877000, m. 878000, m. 879000, m. 880000, m. 881000, m. 882000, m. 883000, m. 884000, m. 885000, m. 886000, m. 887000, m. 888000, m. 889000, m. 890000, m. 891000, m. 892000, m. 893000, m. 894000, m. 895000, m. 896000, m. 897000, m. 898000, m. 899000, m. 900000, m. 901000, m. 902000, m. 903000, m. 904000, m. 905000, m. 906000, m. 907000, m. 908000, m. 909000, m. 910000, m. 911000, m. 912000, m. 913000, m. 914000, m. 915000, m. 916000, m. 917000, m. 918000, m. 919000, m. 920000, m. 921000, m. 922000, m. 923000, m. 924000, m. 925000, m. 926000, m. 927000, m. 928000, m. 929000, m. 930000, m. 931000, m. 932000, m. 933000, m. 934000, m. 935000, m. 936000, m. 937000, m. 938000, m. 939000, m. 940000, m. 941000, m. 942000, m. 943000, m. 944000, m. 945000, m. 946000, m. 947000, m. 948000, m. 949000, m. 950000, m. 951000, m. 952000, m. 953000, m. 954000, m. 955000, m. 956000, m. 957000, m. 958000, m. 959000, m. 960000, m. 961000, m. 962000, m. 963000, m. 964000, m. 965000, m. 966000, m. 967000, m. 968000, m. 969000, m. 970000, m. 971000, m. 972000, m. 973000, m. 974000, m. 975000, m. 976000, m. 977000, m. 978000, m. 979000, m. 980000, m. 981000, m. 982000, m. 983000, m. 984000, m. 985000, m. 986000, m. 987000, m. 988000, m. 989000, m. 990000, m. 991000, m. 992000, m. 993000, m. 994000, m. 995000, m. 996000, m. 997000, m. 998000, m. 999000, m. 1000000, m. 1010000, m. 1020000, m. 1030000, m. 1040000, m. 1050000, m. 1060000, m. 1070000, m. 1080000, m. 1090000, m. 1100000, m. 1110000, m. 1120000, m. 1130000, m. 1140000, m. 1150000, m. 1160000, m. 1170000, m. 1180000, m. 1190000, m. 1200000, m. 1210000, m. 1220000, m. 1230000, m. 1240000, m. 1250000, m. 1260000, m. 1270000, m. 1280000, m. 1290000, m. 1300000, m. 1310000, m. 1320000, m. 1330000, m. 1340000, m. 1350000, m. 1360000, m. 1370000, m. 1380000, m. 1390000, m. 1400000, m. 1410000, m. 1420000, m. 1430000, m. 1440000, m. 1450000, m. 1460000, m. 1470000, m. 1480000, m. 1490000, m. 1500000, m. 1510000, m. 1520000, m. 1530000, m. 1540000, m. 1550000, m. 1560000, m. 1570000, m. 1580000, m. 1590000, m. 1600000, m. 1610000, m. 1620000, m. 1630000, m. 1640000, m. 1650000, m. 1660000, m. 1670000, m. 1680000, m. 1690000, m. 1700000, m. 1710000, m. 1720000, m. 1730000, m. 1740000, m. 1750000, m. 1760000, m. 1770000, m. 1780000, m. 1790000, m. 1800000, m. 1810000, m. 1820000, m. 1830000, m. 1840000, m. 1850000, m. 1860000, m. 1870000, m. 1880000, m. 1890000, m. 1900000, m. 1910000, m. 1920000, m. 1930000, m. 1940000, m. 1950000, m.

Now, the proximate end of physical exercise is to educate and strengthen the body from both static and dynamic perspectives; its more remote end is the use that the soul must be able to make of the body for the development of both external and internal aspects, and thus for the perfection of the person; its supreme end, which is proper to the human person and therefore common to all their activity, is to bring man closer to God and procure eternal happiness for him. In our case, moreover, the instrument is the body; the artist is the soul united to it in a unity of nature; the use is the practice of gymnastics and physical exercise. From this there logically follows an entire series of valuable teachings.

a) The body. — To the wonders of structure and form, of functions, instincts, and energies that make it an enchanting masterpiece of beauty, harmony, and vitality, religious and moral thought adds yet another sacred character. Formed from the earth and enlivened by the spiritual and immortal soul, it was raised by the Creator to the dignity of a temple of God Himself, present in the soul through a very special presence by means of supernatural grace, and destined ultimately to share in the eternal happiness of the soul to which it was united on earth (1 Cor 6:13–20; 15:42–43). Nevertheless, in the human composite it does not occupy the first place but the last, for primacy belongs to the soul. It must therefore be esteemed, respected, cared for, and strengthened, but not deified—just as neither race, nor blood, nor any other somatic presupposition or element is to be deified.

Moreover, as a consequence of original sin, the instincts and forces of the body tend to prevail over right reason, dragging one toward evil. Now, while there are forms of physical exercise that, through their severity, help to strengthen the instincts, there are others that awaken them with violent force or with the seductions of sensuality. And there are also environmental circumstances—a nudism that is neither necessary nor fitting, an exhibitionism of gestures and poses—that inoculate the poison. For this reason, religious and moral sense opposes its veto to such a manner of practicing physical exercise.

b) The soul. — Without the soul, physical exercise would be merely a vain agitation of limbs, an ostentation of fleeting beauty, and a fleeting satisfaction; the soul is the principal and determining factor in the movements of the limbs, in the various agile and prudent displacements, in the contractions of the muscles. Therefore, religious and moral spirit requires and demands: 1) that in the estimation of physical exercise, in judgments about the persons of athletes, and in admiration of their feats, the hierarchy of values be observed, so that the greater esteem not be given to the muscles of the person but to the person who best knows how to master them and subject them to the empire of the spirit; 2) that in case of conflict, the higher and inalienable interests of the soul (integrity, justice and equity, moral probity and natural modesty, due care for life, health, family and professional interests, reputation and honor) not be sacrificed to the advantage of the body; 3) that the joy of possessing perhaps a robust physique and the capacity for success and victory not be esteemed either the sole or the principal element of action, and thus that neither gymnastics nor physical exercise be elevated to the supreme purpose of life.

c) Practice. — For the practical exercise of physical exercise, it must be remembered that, like any other activity, it must submit to and respect the natural law and the positive laws of the Church and of competent authority; consequently: 1) the Lord’s Day must be sanctified by fulfilling religious obligations; 2) family obligations must be remembered and not set aside in favor of supposed exigencies of physical exercise and sports associations; 3) one must not deliberately expose one’s own or others’ life and health to serious danger. This applies to all forms of sport, but all the more so to competitive athletics, especially professional, which can easily degenerate into brutality.

Once the religious and moral content of physical exercise is thus carefully respected, it will take its place in life as an element of balance, harmony, and perfection, as a valid aid in fulfilling other duties, as well as a flourishing of physical and psychic health at the service of the spirit. — See pl. LXXVII.