TAOISM. – Under this name are designated the philosophical and mystical doctrines expounded in the works of Lao Tzu, Chuang Tzu, and Lieh Tzu (whose compilation is commonly dated to the 4th–3rd centuries BCE), and Taoist religion, regarded as a later degeneration of the former, whose organization as a Church is ordinarily attributed to Chang Tao-ling
Tanucci, Bernardo – Portrait. Contemporary print.
(b. 34 CE – d. ca. 156 CE). In Chinese, thinkers are designated as Tao Chia and the religion as Tao Chiao (the doctrine of the Tao), but the two terms are often confused with one another and ordinarily the latter prevails. In truth, Taoist religion is by some considered contemporary with, or even earlier than, the three “philosophers,” who probably represented a more cultured current within religious beliefs. Tao is then a very vague term: it means “road, path, principle, method, etc.,” and so numerous are the translations proposed by Western authors that it may seem advisable to consider it untranslatable, all the more so since the Taoists themselves define it as “ineffable.”
The starting point of Taoist thought is the aim of preserving life and avoiding any harm to oneself: it is, therefore, an individualistic and egoistic conception that, from the earliest times, manifested itself in the form of “world-renunciation” by individuals who sought peace and health in the eremitic life. Around the second half of the 4th century BCE, the Tao Te Ching was perhaps compiled, a work ordinarily attributed to Lao Tzu, a figure about whom very little is known.
He seems to have borne the name Erh, the nickname Tan, and the surname Li: Lao Tzu literally means “old master.” Tradition holds that he was keeper of the royal archives of Chou and, in that capacity, received a visit from Confucius, who was younger than he, and who is said to have been struck by his wisdom. In all probability, however, this episode belongs to the many inventions of the Taoists, who sought to elevate their religion, especially at the expense of Confucianism.
In the Tao Te Ching, the principles of prudence, humility, and contentment with little are set forth in brief paragraphs, often of very obscure interpretation. The book appears as a golden exposition of the principle of “living in concealment,” of inaction, understood in the sense of doing little, of not overdoing (wu-wei). Man should carry out his activities in a natural and spontaneous manner, restricting them to the bare essentials and reducing his desires. Only thus can he avoid failure. The simplicity and innocence of the child (who has little culture and few desires) are characteristics that every man should possess: while, however, for the child or humble folk such simplicity is a gift of nature, for the sage it is the conquest of the spirit, the consequence of a conscious process of self-denial.
Applying these principles to politics, it follows that the wise ruler is one who governs little and lets the people do what they can and what they wish; who issues few laws, establishes few prohibitions, does not encourage study, and banishes intelligence and skill from his realm. In chapter 3 of the Tao Te Ching this is stated very clearly: “The sage governs the people by emptying their minds and filling their bellies, weakening their intelligence and strengthening their bones. He strives to render them without culture and without desires.” The problems of this world arise from the fact that one acts too much, that one wants to do too many things. Lao Tzu, instead, upholds the paradox: “Do nothing and nothing will remain undone.” In an age of terror and disorder such as the 4th and 3rd centuries BCE, when feudal states were at war with one another, the doctrines of Lao Tzu opposed, with their skepticism, the optimism and moralism instilled in Confucian teaching. Whereas according to the latter there is, in human actions, an immanence of Heaven that rewards virtue and punishes evil, for Lao Tzu the universe does not care about human affairs, and it is the task of man and the ruler to know how to insert himself into its course without hindering it with reformist attempts.
These concepts of Lao Tzu are set forth in magnificent literary form in the works attributed to Chuang Tzu and Lieh Tzu. In these texts, however, alongside the exposition of such practical morality and parts of a philosophical nature, there are numerous passages from which the broader substratum of religious beliefs emerges. The evolution of Taoism and the progressive drying up of the wonderful creative capacities of the early writers led, in time, to a growing predominance of the religious element at the expense of the literary and philosophical value of the texts. Especially during the Han dynasty (206 BCE–220 CE), Taoist religion appears in its fullest development. It sets itself the goal of leading the faithful to eternal life. Considering, however, man as composed of matter, it follows that this eternal life is not understood as the spiritual immortality of the soul, but as the material immortality of the body, to be achieved in this life through practices aimed at progressively replacing mortal organs with immortal ones, so that at a certain point the entire mortal body is replaced by an immortal body in which bones and flesh are of gold and jade. At this point the faithful, having become immortal, ascends to heaven, ordinarily in broad daylight and from the summit of a mountain, or, more frequently, dies. But this is a sham death called “liberation of the corpse”: what is buried is a sword or a staff that has temporarily assumed the form of a corpse while the immortal body has already departed to live with the other immortals. Naturally, the faithful had to observe certain practices to transform the mortal body into an immortal one. These practices could be physical and spiritual. The former consisted of breathing exercises, gymnastics, sexual practices, dietary rules, and alchemy. The latter, the most complicated and destined in time to fall into disuse, were aimed at the preparation of a pill called the pill of immortality, based on cinnabar, which alone could render one immortal by the most direct means, or, as the texts say, “flying immortal.” In reality, whoever took it sometimes fell, struck down by the poison, unless he had previously accustomed his organism to it by taking small doses. The other practices were much more interdependent: the breathing exercises consisted of difficult inhalations and exhalations during which the faithful had to try to retain the inhaled air as long as possible and cause it to circulate through all parts of the body. Special gymnastic exercises served to loosen the joints and make it easier for the inhaled air to pass through the body. Finally, dietary practices consisted in eliminating cereals and even meat from the diet: the ideal was to be able to nourish oneself solely
Taoists), at first with their women, then, as Buddhist influence grew stronger, alone until celibacy became the rule, though not always observed in practice. Even today Taoist monks are called Tao-shih. Communities of women were also formed, but these were gradually suppressed over time. Convents were usually established in large cities and on mountain peaks; in the latter, ancient traditions were preserved longer.
In this transformation, Taoism was favored by the rulers themselves, who wished to oppose it, as a “native” religion, to foreign Buddhism. Especially during the T’ang dynasty (618–907), there were Taoist emperors. Following the example of Buddhism, Taoism created a pantheon in which the deities were stars, planets, ancient heroes, spirits overseeing various human activities, animals, and plants. Above all presided a supreme triad composed of the Jade Emperor (Yü Huang Shang Ti), Lao Tzu, and T’ao Chün. Also in imitation of the Buddhists, the Taoists gathered all their writings into the monumental collection known as the Tao-tsang, while religious doctrine became centered on the principle of recording rewards for every good deed and punishments for every sin committed. A deity recorded these during a person’s life to decide, after death, whether to send the soul to heaven or hell. Such a distortion of Taoism’s original nature, and the tendency on the other hand to adopt elements from a foreign religion that might prove useful, did not prevent the ongoing struggle and rivalry between Taoism and Buddhism, a rivalry that gradually faded in more recent centuries.
Alongside the conventual clergy, there are Taoists who live alone and form the lowest part of the Taoist clergy. They may have families and practice as diviners, sorcerers, exorcists, masters of the art of Feng Shui (q.v.), healers, and so on. These Taoists depended, in a somewhat vague manner, on the T’ien-shih (Celestial Master), whom some Western scholars have inaccurately called the “pope” or “supreme pontiff of Taoism.” He resided on Mount Lung-hu in the province of Kiangsi, engaged in low sorcery, the sale of charms and amulets, and the granting— for a fee— of initiation diplomas. The dignity of T’ien-shih was conferred around 424 AD on the Taoist K’ou Ch’ien-chih. Later, during the T’ang dynasty, in 748, official recognition was given to the title, which was attributed to the descendants of Chang Tao-ling. The emperor T’ai Tsu (1368–98) of the Ming dynasty would abolish this title, considering it disrespectful to Heaven, and replace it with that of Chen-jen (True Man). The ancient title, however, persisted, even if not officially recognized. The position of the T’ien-shih steadily declined: in the 19th century he lost the right to be summoned to the imperial court, one of the most serious blows to his prestige. By then, Taoism as a whole was in decline. The Republic granted no privileges to the T’ien-shih and, indeed, confiscated his property, expelling in 1927 from his holdings in Kiangsi the man considered the 63rd successor of Chang Tao-ling. From then on, this unworthy figure lived in a modest Taoist temple in Shanghai.
Toward Taoism, regarded as superstitious and corrupt, the Republican government from 1911 onward did not adopt an overly favorable official stance. Taoist temples, especially in cities— following the fate of many Buddhist temples— were frequently requisitioned for use as schools and barracks. The great mountain convents, pilgrimage destinations such as Mao Shan in the province of Kiangsi, T’ai Shan in Shantung, and Hua Shan in Shensi, have survived both because of their distance from inhabited centers and because of their vast landholdings. In recent years, no serious attempt at renewal has been made among the numerous Taoist sects. Inferior in numbers of monks to Buddhism, Taoism has also lagged behind in reform efforts, propaganda, and proselytizing. If the mountain-top temples have managed to survive