SARCOPHAGI — Side of a 4th-century sarcophagus with the Rape of Elijah — Paris, Musée du Louvre.
Sarcophagi often feature scenes that are not fully developed, or even isolated figures. The same constructive speculations and repercussions are evident in the scenes and figures adorning the attic of the lids, where the central panel is preferably framed by horizontally extended scenes: dolphin races, vases between reclining Genii of the Seasons, hunting scenes, banquets, the Adoration of the Magi, the Three Youths in the Furnace. The stylistic evolution of sarcophagus sculpture followed the broad trends of sculpture in general, passing, like it, from the pictorial form rich in classical reminiscences to realistic impressionism; from the positive to the negative form; from idealism to expressionism; and then experiencing the eclecticisms of a classical revival, before arriving at a conventional and stereotyped calligraphy that would lead it in a straight line to an art strongly imbued with decorative taste. These evolutions, whose sequence is now largely defined, effectively aid in clarifying the chronology of sarcophagi. Although there is still hesitation over the absolute chronology of the earliest Christian sarcophagi (late 2nd century, c. 220 or 250), a comparison of the most evolved artistic forms suffices to establish successive groups: Severan, Gallienic, Tetrarchic, Constantinian and post-Constantinian, Theodosian, etc., while always bearing in mind, for more detailed studies, the inevitable exchanges between one current and another, and between one region and another. The use or non-use of the drill has long served as the principal means of investigation, as in certain periods it was employed more as a pictorial than a sculptural tool to achieve chiaroscuro effects; but a series of stylistic criteria is also found in the way figures are posed, grouped, and gestured, in the analysis of the sculptor’s concept of a given anatomical form and the manner of evoking it in marble, in the draping of garments, and in spatial elements and proportions of the figures and the sarcophagus itself.
Other chronological means are provided by comparisons with already dated monuments, by analysis of hairstyles and beards, and by the study of the evolution of iconographic themes.
The iconographic repertoire of sarcophagi is broader than that of funerary paintings, and for some scenes, which occasionally form true cycles, it reveals figurative traditions exclusively its own. This does not prevent the rest of its thematic evolution from running parallel to that of other art forms. Never renouncing its fundamentally symbolic aims—namely, to use images to convey more profound and spiritual concepts or sentiments—it has repeatedly changed the general direction guiding the choice of figurative types. At first, the purely symbolic theme of an idyllic character predominates, designed to evoke a paradisiacal atmosphere; then historical events become symbols to be evoked as paradigms of eternal salvation; later, due to new allegorical and representative tendencies, the historical personage becomes the main motif, transferred to ultraterrestrial zones where the climate of apotheosis reigns; finally, the symbol is fixed, through further abstraction, into conventional signs serving a decorative art. More specifically, the earliest sarcophagi frequently draw upon motifs already known, at least formally, from secular art: the *Good Shepherd* (or Orpheus), the Orans, the scene of the True Doctrine, and the clipeus with the portrait of the deceased. These themes, depending on the chosen composition, may serve as the main, if not exclusive, motif; but they can also combine with one another to form mixed ensembles, to which new figures such as the *Fisherman*, the *Devouring Lion*, and the *Genius of Death* are added. In the second half of the 3rd century, the pastoral framework expands, and biblical scenes begin to infiltrate existing ensembles: *Jonah*, *Noah in the Ark*, *Daniel among the Lions*, the *Protoparents’ Catch*, the *Baptism*, the *Raising of Lazarus*. The choice of these, along with the symbolic motifs, reveals that from the outset Christian art knew both the paths of harmony and contrast. A brief period, straddling the 3rd–4th centuries and documented by few examples (Wilpert, *Sarcofagi*, plates 65,5; 220; 287,1; 38,3), inaugurates, with broadly developed symmetrical scenes, the series of sarcophagi adorned exclusively with biblical scenes, which will reach their richest flowering in the Constantinian period.
Not that the strigilated sarcophagus disappears in this period; indeed, it persists until the end of the century, retaining even its old motifs. But the great majority of sarcophagi now arrange scenes from the Old and New Testaments, often in two superimposed registers and sometimes according to a well-planned ideological program, centered on new motifs such as the *Deceased* (not always in the orans posture) or the *Deceased between Two Apostles*, the so-called *Denial of St. Peter*, the *Multiplication of Loaves*, the *Entry into Jerusalem*, and the clipeus with portraits. At the ends of the frieze, one frequently finds the *Miracle of the Spring*, the *Raising of Lazarus*, and the *Sacrifice of Abraham*. Although in some cases the relationship between the two Testaments governs the distribution of scenes, these are usually employed rather indiscriminately. New Testament scenes, among which the *Cycle of St. Peter*, the *Healings of the Man Born Blind and the Paralytic*, and the *Miracles at Cana and the Multiplication of Loaves* predominate, are more frequent than those from the Old Testament, where the *Sacrifice of Abraham*, *Daniel among the Lions*, and the *Protoparents’ Catch* recur more often. Among recently discovered scenes not yet included in manuals are the *Expulsion from Paradise*, the *Cycle of Lot* and of *Joseph the Hebrew*, and the *Prophet Balaam Stopped by the Angel*.
Around 340, new directions open with the introduction of scenes from the *Passion* (first of Christ, later of the Apostles Peter and Paul), juxtaposed with typological scenes and themes of apotheosis, such as the allegorical ensemble of triumph over death or Christ in majesty borne by the allegory of Heaven. Simultaneously, the first examples of the *Traditio legis* appear. Thus arises the idea of the glorious Christ and the triumphant continuation of his mission within the Church.
As the use of two new sarcophagus types spreads—the one called *Bethesda* and the other with the *Crossing of the Red Sea*—pre-Theodosian and Theodosian art, except in cases where it continues to employ biblical scenes, will increasingly use the figures of the Apostles to form a court around Christ, whether gathered with him in council, acclaiming him, or presenting him with the crowns of life. Christ himself, now bearded and long-haired, is depicted seated on a throne as Master or standing in the *Traditio legis* on the mountain with the four rivers, or holding the triumphant Cross as a scepter. The palms of Paradise, the *basilica coelestis*, the walls of the Heavenly Jerusalem form the setting in which simple faithful are now also introduced.
The allegorical frieze of the twelve lambs arranged around the Divine Lamb on the mountain with the four rivers; the two stags framing the *signum Christi*; the *chrismon* or monogrammatic Cross between doves, etc., already indicate the direction in which iconographic themes will further develop, as documented primarily in the 5th–6th centuries by Ravenna sarcophagi. Indeed, in Ravenna, even if it remains difficult to agree on the chronology of local sarcophagi, it is clear that ornamental motifs increasingly prevail. Figurative sarcophagi not only
