COMPOSITION. — The present order of the books that make up the Imitation of Christ is the primitive one, consistently given by codices of Italian (or “cisalpine”) origin; in codices of non-Italian (or “transalpine”) origin, on the other hand, there are many anomalies in this regard. The Brussels codex, which the “Kempists” consider the archetype of the work, places Book IV before Book III. In other codices the confusion is even greater, and the entire work is not always given (II-I-III-IV; III-II-IV-I; I-II-IV; III-II-I; I-II-II; etc.); indeed, the individual books are presented as independent of one another or entirely isolated, or sometimes with different opuscules interposed (cf. cod. Bambergensis).
The general title of the work was taken from chapter 1 (De imitatione Christi et contemptu omnium vanitatum mundi) of Book I, either in full or in part (both the first and the second part); the title of chapter 1 (De interna conversatione) of Book II was also used, as well as the title of Book III (De interna consolatione), which passed into the famous French translation, L’Internelle consolation.
The division of chapters into paragraphs and the biblical citations were introduced in printed editions. The Benedictine Th. Erhard (18th cent.) introduced into the text the numbering of verses as used for the Bible; the system was adopted in the edition of the Bibliotheca ascetica by Pustet (I, Ratisbon 1911), and in Italy by Dr. Sestili and by A. Mercati; it was also accepted in the Italian edition by Hoepli, edited by Zumpini and Galbiati, who, however, appropriately also add the traditional paragraphing.
DIFFUSION. — The work’s wide diffusion is attested by the number of surviving manuscripts: about 400 remain (of which 160 are Benedictine, and about 40 Augustinian or from the Canons Regular). With the invention of printing, editions multiplied rapidly, surpassing two thousand even in Hurter’s time (II, col. 978). The first edition was that of Augsburg (1472); in Italy, that of Venice (1483), under the name of Gerson.
The Kempis codex, reproduced in facsimile by Carlo Ruclens (Leipzig 1879), was given a critical edition by K. Hirsche (Berlin 1891) and by M. J. Pohl in the *Opera omnia* of Thomas à Kempis (II, *De Imitatione Christi quae dicitur* libri III cum ceteris autographi Bruxellensis tractatibus, Freiburg im Br. 1904). The editions by M. Hetzenauer (Innsbruck 1901) and by A. Mercati (Vatican Polyglot 1925) also depend on this same codex.
The translations are innumerable: in all European languages, and in many Oriental ones. An Italian vernacular version in Tuscan from the 14th century, accepted by the Crusca as a linguistic standard, was published by C. Mella with an extensive historical introduction (Rome 1775; Turin 1880). Among modern Italian versions, the literary ones by A. Cesari and C. Guasti stand out, as well as the more popular one by Cardinal E. Enriquez.
Among recent translations, mention should be made of those by O. Tescari (Turin 1929; 3rd ed. 1947), by Abbot Placido Lugano (Rome 1932), by Fr. G. Lottini (Rome 1932; 3rd ed. 1949), and that by Mons. A. Masini (Florence 1941), preferred by M. Cordovani in his *Breviario spirituale secondo l’II. di C.* (Rome 1950). An excellent literary commentary is found in the reprint of Guasti’s edition, edited by Zumpini and Galbiati (Milan 1938). A. Levasti has standardized C. Guasti’s version to conform with Pohl’s critical edition (Florence 1928).
In France, the celebrated translations include those by P. Corneille (in verse), by Le Maistre de Sacy, by Michel de Marillac, and by Lamennais (q.v.), whose “reflections” are often included in the Italian editions by Cardinal Enriquez.
In other countries as well, the versions of the *Imitation* are very numerous. A truly universal book, dear to all because it brings light and comfort to everyone: a small yet immense book, powerful and gentle, highly beneficial to humanity. — See plate C.
Before Puvol, the following should be noted: G. de Gregor, *Histoire du livre de l’Imitation de J.-C. et de son véritable auteur*, 2 vols., Paris 1834; K. Hirsche, *Prolegomena zu einer neuen Ausgabe der «Imitation Christi» nach dem Autograph des Thomas V. Kempen*, 3 vols., Berlin 1873–94; L. Santini, *I diritti di Tommaso da Kempis*, 2 vols., Rome 1879–80; H. Denifle, *Kritische Bemerkungen zur Gersen-Kempisfrage*, in *Zeitschrift für katholische Theologie*, 6 (1882), pp. 692–718; 7 (1883), pp. 692–743 (cf. ibid., 9 [1885], pp. 193–96).
Among the more recent works: L. Dumas, *L’Imitation de J.-C.*, Paris 1913 (systematic exposition of doctrine); P. Pourrat, *La Spiritualité chrétienne*, II, 1912, pp. 379–400 (on the *Devotio moderna*); L. Cournol, *Les doctrines de l’Imitation de J.-C.*, Lille 1926; J. Huijben, *Les premiers documents historiques concernant l’Imitation*, in *La vie spirituelle*, for the years 1925–26, Suppl. to vol. XII, pp. 213–28 and vol. XIII, pp. 1–17 and 96–116; id., *Quelques objections contre Thomas à Kempis*, ibid., Suppl. to vol. XIII, pp. 202–22; id., *Gerson de l’Imitation*, ibid., 1934, Suppl. to vol. XXXIX, pp. 146–65; vol. XL, pp. 28–47 and 90–104; E. De Schaeppdrijver, *Qui est l’auteur de l’Imitation?*, in *Revue d’ascétique et de mystique*, 9 (1928).
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pp. 209-111; F. Vernet, La spiritualité médiévale, Parigi 1920, pp. 59-60; P. Debongnie, Un témoignage méconnu en faveur de Thomas à Kempis (le ms. 4338 de Vienne), in Revue d'hist. eccl., 26 (1930), pp. 109-15; id., Les thèmes de l'« Initiation », ibid., 36 (1940), pp. 289-344; id., Henri Suso et l'« E. de J.-C. », in Revue d'ase. et de myst., 21 (1940), pp. 243-68; id., Urschrift von Remaniment? l'« Imitation » de Lubeck, in Rev. d'hist. eccl., 44 (1949), pp. 488-507 (a proposito dei lavori del p. van Ginneken: cf. ibid., 43 [1948], pp. 608-10); R. Pitigliani, Contributo di documenti nuovi alle controversie sull'« Initiation », in Saggi bibliografici-critico, in Avenn., 9 (1935), pp. 321-429; F. Meda, Le traduzioni italiane del « De I. C. », in Corvium, 9 (1937), pp. 215-23; Piergiovanni di G. e M. (d. Giovanni Bo- nardi), L'autore italiano della I. di C.: Giovanni Gerson, Biella 1938 (cf. recensione di P. Ferraris, in Civ. Catt., 1939, I, pp. 151-154); I. Schuster, L'ascetica benedettina e la I. di C., in La scuola cattolica, 67 (1939), pp. 273-93; M. Lewandowski, Une énigme de l'histoire : l'auteur inconnu de l'