HOSEA. - An Israelite prophet (Os. 7:5), whose book stands first among the Minor Prophets. Hosea’s preaching was the final appeal of divine mercy (*hōēsa* “Jahweh saves”) to the ten northern tribes before their punishment, just as Amos had earlier summoned divine justice.
The prosperous reign of Jeroboam II (783–743) was drawing to a close; already, with the rise of Tiglath-pileser III (745–727), Assyria was awakening from the torpor that, together with the decline of the Twenty-Second Dynasty in Egypt, had granted Syria and then Samaria a temporary splendor. Meanwhile, internal disorder resumed (743) with the frenzied succession of kings and dynasties: *Zechariah*, the last of the Jehu line, was murdered (cf. Os. 1:4) after only six months on the throne by Shallum, who himself held power for a single month. The usurper Menahem (742–737), tributary to Assyria, reigned for about six years; the others (Pekah, Pekahiah, Hoshea) followed in rapid succession, almost as if in rhythm with the final catastrophe that, begun by Shalmaneser V (727–722) with the siege of Samaria (from 724), was completed by Sargon II (722–721). Hosea refers to these tumultuous dynastic changes (7:3–7); according to A. Alt, probably to those of 743, while E. Sellin links them to the final ones. He therefore feels great pity for the people, dragged by their leaders first into schism and the violation of the covenant with Jahweh, then into utter ruin. The priests, for their own interests, are the guardians of this fatal disorder (cf. *Am. 7:10–17*; A. Neher [V. BIBLICA.], pp. 20–33; Os. 4:4–10; 5).
The central theme of Hosea, like that of *Am. 3:1ff.*, is the covenant, ratified at Sinai, between Jahweh and Israel. Hosea develops it in the mode of love, drawing out all its consequences—rights and duties—and showing its ultimate purpose, messianic salvation (Os. 3:5).
The covenant is an intimate relationship between Jahweh and Israel, arising from the Lord’s free election and solemnly accepted by the people. Hosea (1–3) employs the image of marriage, perhaps derived from *Ex. 20:5* (*qamā* “jealous,” from *qū*, which in the *piēl* expresses the feeling of jealousy proper to a spouse), and later taken up by subsequent prophets (*Jer. 2; Ez. 16, etc.*; *Song of Songs*; but already *Am. 3:2 jadīha ti*). It is essentially expressed in the Decalogue: the commandment against other gods and moral precepts (Os. 4:1ff., 12–19; 6:6ff., etc.; cf. *Am. 3:1ff.*; 5:21–26; 8:2; *Mic. 6:6ff.*; *Is. 1:1–7*; *Jer. 7:11, etc.*). From God’s side, every blessing and the greatest affection; from Israel’s side, infidelity that began with the first contacts with the Canaanites (Os. 9:10; 10:1; 11:1ff.; 13:5ff.; cf. *Jer. 2:1–3*; *Ez. 20:28*), now at its height in Samaria (Os. 2:4–15; 4:12 passim). Punishment is therefore imminent; salvation lies only in returning to the sworn covenant, and Hosea repeats Jahweh’s loving invitation (11:1–14).
Consequences of the central theme: the Kingdom of Israel can only be theocratic. A king who acts against the covenant (as did the various dynasties of the north) is illegitimate. Hence Hosea’s opposition and condemnation (7:3–7; 8:4; 10:15; 13:10ff.) is not against monarchy as a regime of liberty, but against the impious politics of Samaria’s kings. Entering into the game of political powers, trusting in one’s own arms and in stronger kingdoms, means no longer having faith in the covenant, in fidelity and the omnipotence of God; it is to drift toward syncretism and idolatry (Os. 5:13; 7:11; 8:9; 10:4ff.; 12:2; 14:4).
The sociological school (A. Causse, *Du groupe ethnique à la communauté religieuse*, Paris 1937, pp. 83–90), besides the anti-monarchical movement, attributes to the prophets, and especially to Hosea, a nostalgia for the desert, an invitation to nomadic life, and a condemnation of culture. But Hosea calls the fruits of the field and wealth a gift of God (2:10ff.), which figured among the signs of the future restoration (2:17a, 23ff.). He condemns popular religion that attributes the earth’s goods to the Baals (2:7, 10) and venerates them (2:10b, 15). The desert period is celebrated for Israel’s fidelity to the covenant.
The book of Hosea preserves the main ideas of the prophet’s preaching. They are found complete in the first three chapters. By divine command, Hosea takes as his wife a woman of harlotry (D. Buzy [V. BIBLICA.]): Israel, the spouse of Jahweh, is now an adulteress; idolatry dominates the northern kingdom. If the covenant cannot be maintained in love, it will be maintained in justice. This is expressed in the names Hosea gives his children: *Jezreel* (assonance with Israel), the plain bloodied by Jehu (*2 Kgs. 9:14–37*), a portent of terrible punishments; *Lo-ruhamah* “not pitied,” Jahweh resolved no longer to show mercy; *Lo-ammi* “not my people,” for the northern kingdom has broken the covenant. And yet Jahweh still loves Israel (Os. 3); condemnations and punishments are medicinal, so that Israel, purified, may convert and share in the salvation that will come through the Davidic dynasty (*ibid.* 1–3).
As for the rest of the book, there is no question of systematic development; Hosea proceeds by oracles without apparent connection. Three main sections are generally distinguished: 4–7; 8–11; 12–14, each echoing the themes mentioned above.
The Wellhausenian criticism, too theoretical and narrow (K. Marti, F. Nowack, G. Hölscher, P. Volz), which regarded every promise of salvation and every reference to Judah as interpolations, has been surpassed. With untenable postulates (A. Neher [V. BIBLICA.], pp. 36–42), it entirely ignored the Sinai covenant and relegated morality to later prophets. The first three chapters can serve as a touchstone. In Os. 3:5 it is explicitly stated that the covenant will find its fulfillment through the Davidic dynasty. When speaking of the covenant’s fate, Hosea cannot ignore Judah. The same chapter 3 establishes the close connection between threats and promises of forgiveness and salvation (cf. already chap. 2).
The text is among the most defective in the Bible; it contains ancient corruptions, some of which are found in the Septuagint; hence versions are of little help and much depends on simple conjecture. The poetic form is even harder to establish. The vocabulary is rich and the language classical, expressing the feelings of a soul deeply penetrated by love for God and for his people; the outbursts of a nature profoundly sensitive and religious. This combination of qualities makes Hosea a powerful lyric poet not inferior to Isaiah.