1st and 2nd (3rd and 4th) BOOK OF KINGS. - Two books of the Old Testament that recount the history of the Hebrew people from the last years of David (d. 970 BC) to the Babylonian exile (587 BC), placed by the Jews among the "Former Prophets."
In the Vulgate they are called "Books of Kings" (Libri Regum), while in the Septuagint they are "Books of Kingdoms" (βασιλειῶν; cf. St. Jerome’s remark in the Prologue to the Gallican Psalter against this title). In the Masoretic text, the first two are called "Books of Samuel" (v.), and the latter two "First and Second Books of Kings." The Hebrew designation is preferable, as the Second Book of Kings corresponds to the Third and Fourth of the Vulgate and Septuagint. Originally, the two Books of Kings formed a single work, as did the two Books of Samuel. This unity is preserved in the Syriac version. The division into two books, introduced by the Septuagint, passed into Latin versions and, later (15th century), into the Hebrew Bible, first in manuscripts and then in the printed edition prepared by Felice da Prato and published by Daniel Bomberg (Venice, 1516–17).
The Books of Kings cover three distinct periods:
a) The united kingdom under David (his final days) and Solomon (1 Kings 1–11);
b) The two kingdoms of Israel and Judah (1 Kings 12; 2 Kings 17);
c) The kingdom of Judah from the fall of Israel to the Babylonian exile (2 Kings 18–25).
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### I. THE LAST DAYS OF DAVID AND THE REIGN OF SOLOMON, 970–930 (?) BC (1 KINGS 1–11).
David, now old and infirm (1 Kings 1:1–4), is challenged by Adonijah, but Nathan intervenes through Bathsheba to secure the throne for Solomon (1:5–53). Adonijah later arouses suspicion by requesting Abishag as a wife, and Solomon has him executed (2:13–25). Abiathar, the high priest, is deposed, and Joab, a supporter of Adonijah, is killed—Zadok succeeds Abiathar, and Benaiah succeeds Joab (2:26–35); Benaiah also executes Shimei (2:36–46). Solomon marries the daughter of the Pharaoh of Egypt (3:1–3). God grants Solomon wisdom, demonstrated in the famous judgment (3:4–28). Solomon organizes the kingdom and displays further wisdom: construction of the Temple and palace, furnishings of the Temple (chs. 4–7). The ark is brought to the Temple, Solomon delivers a speech and prayer, blesses the people, and offers sacrifices (ch. 8). A second divine appearance brings promises and warnings; Solomon cedes certain cities to Hiram, undertakes new enterprises, and imposes new burdens (ch. 9). The Queen of Sheba visits (10:1–13). Solomon’s splendor and wealth (10:14–29) are undermined by his pagan wives and concubines, provoking God’s displeasure. Enemies arise, including Jeroboam; a summary of Solomon’s reign and death follows (ch. 11).
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### II. THE TWO KINGDOMS OF ISRAEL AND JUDAH, 930–722/121 BC (1 KINGS 12–2 KINGS 17).
A schism erupts due to the discontent of the northern tribes, burdened by heavy taxes, and Rehoboam’s imprudence; Jeroboam becomes king of the ten dissident tribes (1 Kings 12:1–20). Relations between the two kingdoms are mostly hostile, except during a brief period of accord between the royal houses (c. 875–842 BC) until the fall of Israel (842–722/121 BC). The narrative centers on the rulers of both kingdoms (the following chronology is the most probable).
#### KINGS OF JUDAH
**REHOBOAM** (17 years: 930–914 BC) attempts to subdue the rebellious tribes but suffers an invasion by Shishak of Egypt (1 Kings 12:21–24; 14:21–31).
**ABIJAM** (3 years: 914–912 BC) (1 Kings 15:1–8).
**ASA** (41 years: 912–872 BC), a pious king (1 Kings 14:9–24).
#### KINGS OF ISRAEL
**JEROBOAM** (20 years: 930–911 BC; or 22: 932–911 BC) consolidates political schism with religious schism, establishing worship at Bethel and Dan, and incurs prophetic condemnation through Ahijah (1 Kings 12:25–14:20).
**NADAB** (2 years: 911–910 BC), Jeroboam’s son, is assassinated by Baasha (1 Kings 15:25–32).
**BAASHA** (25 years: 910–887 BC), an usurper, wars with Asa (1 Kings 15:33–16:7).
**ELAH** (2 years: 887–886 BC), killed by Zimri (1 Kings 16:8–14).
**ZIMRI** (7 days: 886 BC), an usurper, overthrown by Omri and commits suicide (1 Kings 16:15–20).
**OMRI** (12 years: 886–875 BC) founds the capital of Samaria and brings prosperity to the kingdom (1 Kings 16:21–28).
**AHAB** (22 years: 875–845 BC), wicked, marries the idolatrous Jezebel, introduces Baal worship, and is opposed by Elijah (1 Kings 16:29–22:40).
**JEHOSHAPHAT** (25 years: 872–849 BC), a good but weak king, even giving his son Jehoram in marriage to Athaliah, daughter of Ahab (1 Kings 22:41–44; 2 Kings 8:16–24).
**JEHORAM** (8 years: 840–842 BC), a wicked king (2 Kings 8:16–24).
**AHAZIAH** (1 year: 842 BC) fights alongside Jehoram of Israel against the Arameans and is killed by Jehu (2 Kings 8:25–29; 9:14–30).
**ATHALIAH** (7 years: 842–836 BC), an usurper who massacres the royal family but spares Joash; she is later executed by order of the high priest Jehoiada (2 Kings 11:1–20).
**JEHOASH** (40 years: 836–797 BC) restores the Temple but is later assassinated (2 Kings 12:1–22).
**AMAZIAH** (15 [29] years: 797–783 BC) is defeated by Joash of Israel and falls victim to a conspiracy (2 Kings 14:1–22).
**AZARIAH (Uzziah, Ozias)** (27 [52] years: 783–757 BC), a good king but struck with leprosy; he cedes power to his son Jotham (2 Kings 15:1–7).
**JOTHAM** (16 years: 757–742 BC), a pious king.
**AHAZ** (16 years: 741–736 BC), a paganizing king, secures Assyrian help against the Syrian-Israelite coalition (2 Kings 16:1–20).
**HEZEKIAH** (29 years: 726 [725]–697 BC).
*(Note: The list of northern kings repeats the earlier sequence due to a typographical error in the original text.)*
**BAASHA** (25 years: 910–887 BC), an usurper, wars with Asa (1 Kings 15:33–16:7).
**ELAH** (2 years: 887–886 BC), killed by Zimri (1 Kings 16:8–14).
**ZIMRI** (7 days: 886 BC), an usurper, overthrown by Omri and commits suicide (1 Kings 16:15–20).
**OMRI** (12 years: 886–875 BC) founds the capital of Samaria and brings prosperity to the kingdom (1 Kings 16:21–28).
**AHAB** (22 years: 875–845 BC), wicked, marries the idolatrous Jezebel, introduces Baal worship, and is opposed by Elijah (1 Kings 16:29–22:40).
**AHAZIAH** (2 years: 854–853 BC), a worthy son of Ahab (1 Kings 22:52 ff.; 2 Kings 1:1–2:25).
**JEHORAM** (12 years: 853–842 BC) fights against Mesha of Moab and Ben-hadad of Damascus. Elisha’s ministry (2 Kings 3:1–27; 4:1–8:15).
**JEHU** (28 years: 842–815 BC) executes judgment on the house of Ahab and destroys Baal worship; he is defeated by Hazael of Syria (2 Kings 9:1–10:36).
**JEHOAHAZ** (17 years: 815–795 BC), oppressed by the Arameans, receives a savior (possibly Adad-nirari?) (2 Kings 13:1–9).
**JEHOASH** (16 years: 795–783 BC) defeats the Arameans (2 Kings 13:10–25).
**JEROBOAM II** (41 years: 783–743 BC), under whom Israel reaches its greatest power and extent (2 Kings 14:23–29).
**ZECHARIAH** (6 months: 743 BC), assassinated by Shallum (2 Kings 15:8–12).
**SHALLUM** (1 month: 742 BC), overthrown by Menahem (2 Kings 15:13–16).
**MENAHEM** (6 [10] years: 742–737 BC) pays a heavy tribute to Tiglath-pileser III (2 Kings 15:16–22).
**PEKAHIAH** (2 years: 737–736 BC), killed by Pekah (2 Kings 15:23–26).
**PEKAH** (4 [20] years: 736–732 BC), overthrown by Hoshea (2 Kings 15:27–31).
**HOSEA** (9 years: 732–724 BC), rebels against Assyria, is imprisoned; Samaria falls after a three-year siege, 722–21 BC. Origins of the Samaritans (2 Kings 17:1–41).
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III. THE KINGDOM OF JUDAH FROM THE FALL OF SAMARIA TO THE EXILE
HEZEKIAH, a pious king, threatened with invasion by Sennacherib, was miraculously delivered; healed of a mortal illness; imprudently showed his treasures to Merodach-Baladan (2 Kings 18-20). MANASSEH was impious until near the end of his 55-year reign (697 [696]-642) (21:1-18). AMON, impious like Manasseh, after two years of reign (642 [641]-640) was killed in a court conspiracy; the people avenged his murderers and proclaimed king the pious Josiah (31 years: 640 [639]-609) (21:19-26), who restored the Temple and promoted a radical religious reform; he died at Megiddo in an attempt to resist Pharaoh Necho (22:1-23:30). JEHOAHAZ (three months: 609) was taken prisoner by Necho, who placed on the throne Eliakim, under the name of JEHOIAKIM, who reigned eleven years (609 [608]-598), tributary to Nebuchadnezzar (23:31-24:7). The latter also imprisoned his successor JEHOIACHIN after three months of reign (598) and made Mattaniah king under the name of ZEDEKIAH (598 [597]-587). Jerusalem was besieged in the ninth year of Zedekiah and fell in the eleventh (587); Zedekiah (v.) had his sons killed and his eyes put out. This was followed by the deportation of the people, the plundering of the Temple, and the killing of the nobles (24:8-25:21). Gedaliah, appointed governor of those remaining in Judah, was killed, and the people fled to Egypt for fear of the Babylonians (25:22-26). Jehoiachin’s imprisonment was lightened by Evil-merodach (25:27-30).After recounting the last days of David and the reign of Solomon, the narrative proceeds according to a constant pattern, especially in the parallel treatment of the kings of Judah and Israel. The introductory formula contains: a) a synchronistic indication of the year of accession in reference to the contemporary king of Israel (1 Kings 15:1, 9; 22:41, etc.) or of Judah (ibid. 15:25, 33; 16:8, 15, 23, 29; 22:52, etc.); b) the duration of the reign (ibid. 15:2, 10, 25, 33; 16:8, 15, 23, 29; 22:42, 52, etc.); c) an assessment of the king’s character with regard to fidelity or infidelity to the religion. In this regard, the kings of Israel are all compared to Jeroboam, who caused his people to sin (ibid., 15:26 ff., 34; 16:26, etc.). The kings of Judah are judged by the standard of David, the paragon of fidelity. Some were very wicked: Abijam (ibid. 15:23 ff.), Ahaz (2 Kings 16:2 ff.), Manasseh (ibid. 21:9), etc.; many essentially practiced the religion of David but tolerated the worship at the high places (as did also Jehoshaphat: 1 Kings 22:44); very few deserve unqualified praise for having practiced the pure and simple religion of Yahweh (Hezekiah: 2 Kings 18:3 ff.; Josiah: ibid. 22:2). The concluding formula contains: a) an indication of the source, to which the reader is also referred for more detailed information (1 Kings 14:29; 15:7, 23, 31; 2 Kings 8:23; 10:34, etc.); b) the death and successor (1 Kings 14:31; 15:8, 24; 2 Kings 8:24; 10:35, etc.). Non-constant elements include the indication of the king’s age at the beginning of his reign (1 Kings 22:42; 2 Kings 14:23); the name of the mother for the kings of Judah (2 Kings 8:26); and the place of burial (1 Kings 16:28; 22:51).
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IV. HISTORICITY
The Books of Kings are, without doubt, a historical work; but it is a history with a thesis, since it aims to demonstrate by the facts that the happiness of the chosen people depends on observance of the divine law, while non-observance brings disaster upon the houses of Judah and Israel (cf. 2 Kings 17:7-23). Consequently, the religious element occupies the foreground in this history. The role of the prophets is also highlighted with particular care (extended narratives forming the cycles of Elijah and Elisha: 1 Kings 17-II Kings 1; II Kings 2-13), for they were the defenders of the religion, with authority to call the people, its kings, and its priests to account. Another characteristic is the dynastic element, namely, the demonstration of the legitimacy of the single Davidic dynasty ruling in Judah, in contrast to the many illegitimate dynasties that succeeded one another in Israel. Even the captive king Jehoiachin, to whom Evil-merodach “lifted up his head” (2 Kings 25:27), acquires almost the value of a symbol and pledge for the future of the deported people. Against the single house of David in Judah (the interruption by Athaliah was soon ended by the accession of the surviving Davidic heir) stand no fewer than nine royal families in Israel within the span of two hundred years.The two Books of Kings bear evident signs of compilation. The author sometimes limited himself to juxtaposing documents without troubling to avoid duplications, which resulted from the fact that the different sources contained the same information. Among the various cases of this kind, note: 1 Kings 5:1 and 5:4 (extension of Solomon’s dominion); ibid. 5:6-30 and 10:23-36 (Solomon’s wealth and magnificence; tribute paid to him); ibid. 9:28 and 10:11 (wealth imported from Ophir); 2 Kings 13:12 ff. and 14:16 ff. (end of Joash). Yet this does not detract from the unity of composition, attested by the schematism governing the book, the spirit animating it, and the demonstrative purposes to which the narrative is put. Further evidence of the unity of composition is provided by certain recurring formulas, such as: “the sin of Jeroboam” (eight times in 1 Kings and nine in 2 Kings); “did what was evil in the sight of the Lord” (thirty times in the two books); “for the sake of my servant David” (1 Kings 15:32, 34; 15:4; 2 Kings 8:19; 19:34; 20:6); “pisseth against the wall” (1 Kings 14:10; 16:11; 21:21; 2 Kings 9:8; elsewhere only in 1 Sam. 25:22, 34).
The following sources are explicitly cited: the Book of the Acts of Solomon (1 Kings 11:41); the Annals of the Kings of Judah (15 times, first for Rehoboam [1 Kings 14:29], last for Jehoiachin [2 Kings 24:5]); the Annals of the Kings of Israel (18 times, first for Jeroboam [1 Kings 14:19], last for Pekah [2 Kings 15:31]). It is debated whether these sources were official or private. If they were official, this would provide an additional reason to suppose that the Books of Kings contain other sources explaining the reporting of facts and judgments unfavorable to the monarchs, which official sources of inspiration could not have contained; but it is more probable that they were private compilations that had utilized official sources.
Of the sources not explicitly cited in the Books of Kings, some must have been of court origin, from which would derive the list of Solomon’s ministers and prefects (1 Kings 4:2-19), the panegyric on his greatness (ibid. 4:20-34), and the account of the visit of the Queen of Sheba (ibid. 10:1-29); others of priestly origin, which narrate the construction of the Temple (ibid. 6:1-7:50), the revolt against Athaliah organized by the high priest Jehoiada (2 Kings 11:1-20), the repairs to the Temple under Joash (ibid. 12:1-16), and the religious reform of Josiah (ibid. 22:3-23:27), etc.; still others of prophetic origin, whence comes the denunciation by a prophet against Jeroboam and the altar he built at Bethel (1 Kings 13:1-23). The reproach
ad Ahab (ibid. 20, 1-45). To this last category belong, in their entirety, the cycles of Elijah (1 Kings 17–2 Kings 1) and of Elisha (2 Kings 2–13), which have well-defined contours both in style and in the spirit that informs them. Not all, perhaps, of these sources were written: some may have reached the compiler through oral tradition.
That the books of Kings, as they now appear, are posterior by several decades to the fall of Jerusalem (587 B.C.) is inferred from the episode narrated in 2 Kings 25, 27-30. Evil-merodach (562-560 B.C.) granted favor to Jehoiachin, king of Judah, releasing him from prison and ensuring him a dignified treatment, along with other deposed kings; which, the redactor says, lasted until the death of Jehoiachin, so that one would have to descend to a time well after the accession of Evil-merodach. But this may be a later editorial note, added long after the first compilation, which thus may be not only prior to the release of Jehoiachin from prison, but also to the exile and the fall of Jerusalem. Clear indications of this are found in 1 Kings 8, 8 (the ark of the covenant still exists in the Temple); 2 Kings 8, 22 (Edom is free from Israelite domination, even to the present); and in the insistence on promises of an unbroken succession for the Davidic dynasty, in stark contrast to the fall of the kingdom of Judah and the fate that befell Zedekiah and his family (2 Kings 25, 27).
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V. AUTHOR
Nothing definite can be said about the author. It would have been Jeremiah, according to rabbinic tradition (Bābha' Bathar', 15a), taken up by St. Isidore (De eccl. off., I, 12, 1: PL 83, 747), by Sixtus of Siena (Biblioteca sancta, I, Venice 1575, p. 31), by Cornelius a Lapide (Comm. in Scripturam S., III, Ios.–3 Kings, Paris 1866, p. 251), considered favorably, among moderns, by R. Cornely (Rhisterica et critica Introductio in utriusque Test. libros sacros, II, 1, 2nd ed., Paris 1897, pp. 293 ff.), M. Hetzenauer (Theologia biblica, I, Freiburg 1908, p. 351) and a few others (cf. H. Höpf – A. Miller – A. Metzinger [V. BIBLICA.], pp. 167 ff.). This attribution may be explained by a certain analogy in the manner of conceiving and judging between the two books of Kings and that of Jeremiah, but especially by the identity of content in 2 Kings 24, 18–25, 21. 27–30 (25, 22–26 is a summary of the account in Jer. 40, 7–41, 18) and in Jer. 52. But it is more likely that a redactor of Jeremiah’s oracles borrowed from the book of Kings material that served as a fitting conclusion to the prophetic book, demonstrating the fulfillment of its prophecies.The constant reference to sources is already a good criterion for judging the reliability of the information. The content of Kings moreover finds frequent corroboration in other historical books and in the prophetic ones (cf. among many cases: Hos. 7, 7; 8, 4 = 2 Kings 15, 10, 14, 25; Hos. 5, 13; 7, 11; 8, 9; 12, 2 = 2 Kings 15, 17–20; Amos 7, 10; 4, 1–6 = 2 Kings 14, 23–29; Isa. 7, 1–12 = 2 Kings 16, 5; Isa. 36, 1–37, 38 = 2 Kings 18, 13–19, 37, etc.). The documents and monuments of Egypt, Assyria, Neo-Babylonia, and Palestine uncovered by excavations have often provided surprising confirmation of the historical value of the biblical narrative. Thus, to limit ourselves to a few examples, an inscription from the Temple of Amon at Karnak records the victories of Sheshonq (945–924 B.C.) in Syria and Palestine, with the names of various cities either conquered or subjected to tribute: it is the Shishak who plundered Jerusalem according to 1 Kings 14, 25 sqq. The inscription of Shalmaneser III (859–826 B.C.)—the Black Obelisk—lists among the kings who pay tribute also Jehu of Israel. Neo-Babylonian documents confirm the datum of 2 Kings 25, 27 sqq. regarding the provisions granted to the deported king Jehoiachin from the table of Evil-merodach (cf. E. F. Weidner, *Joachin, König von Juda, in babylonischen Keilschrifttexten*, in *Mélanges syriens offerts à R. Dussaud*, II, Paris 1939, pp. 923–35; A. Bea, *König Joachim in Keilschrifttexten*, in *Biblia*, 23 [1942], pp. 78–82). The inscription of Mesha, king of Moab, confirms 2 Kings 3, 4–27. Much light has also come to the books of Kings from the excavations at Samaria, Lachish (the Lachish Letters = Tell ed-Duweir), and Megiddo (Megiddo = Tell el-Mutesellim). At Megiddo an important confirmation is found for 1 Kings 9, 19 (Solomon’s stables). Cf. H. Lusseau–M. Collomb (v. BIBLICA), pp. 209–22; H. Höpf – A. Miller – A. Metzinger (v. BIBLICA), p. 169.
Various problems arise from the chronological data of the books of Kings, and numerous hypotheses have been advanced to resolve them. From the relationship between the duration of the individual reigns and the accession year of the reigning king of Judah or Israel, difficulties arise, since the number of years does not coincide in periods that should be of equal duration. In the periods from Rehoboam to the usurpation of Athaliah and from Jeroboam to the accession of Jehu, which should coincide perfectly, the kings of Judah reign for 95 years and those of Israel for 98. For the subsequent period, which goes up to the fall of Samaria, the years of the various reigns in Judah add up to 165, in Israel to 143. Then, taking into account that Jehu paid tribute to Shalmaneser III, according to Assyrian documents, around the year 842 and Samaria fell in 721, this period should be further reduced to about 120 years. To resolve these and other difficulties, recourse has been had to the hypothesis that in one of the two kingdoms, in reckoning the years of the sovereign, the method of antedating was followed, while in the other the method of postdating was used, in the first case attributing the entire year of accession to the new sovereign, in the second beginning to count his years of reign from the start of the new civil year. It has also been thought that in one kingdom the new year began in the month of Nisan and in the other in the month of Tishri. There may have been copyists’ errors, with the consequence that the same years were counted twice. Some errors may be attributed to copyists and careless correctors. Overcoming the distrust of St. Jerome (Epist. 72 ad Vitalem: PL 22, 676), who considered the task of reconciling the dates of the books of Kings as an occupation for idlers, many moderns have devoted themselves to this thankless work, with results that are partly satisfactory, but far from definitive.
The Hebrew text of Kings is relatively well preserved, with the exception of chapters 6 and 7 of 1 Kings, where the Greek version of the Septuagint offers a much clearer and more orderly text. Generally this version is an excellent tool for correcting the Masoretic text, especially in the form preserved by the Lucianic recension, which has been less influenced by the original text than the latter. The Old Latin almost always agrees with the Lucianic recension of the Septuagint. The Vulgate is the first fruit of the labor of St. Jerome as translator of the Bible from Hebrew: a faithful and elegant translation.