1 AND 2 (3 and 4) Book of Kings. - Two books of the Old Testament, which summarize the history of the Hebrew people from the last years of David (d. 970 B.C.) to the Babylonian exile (587 B.C.), placed by the Hebrews among the "prophetae priores."
In the Vulgate four books bear the name "books of R." (Libri Regum), called in the Septuagint "books of the Kingdoms" (Ἐκασιλεῖον) cf. the remark of St. Jerome, in the Prof. Gal., against this designation) while in the Masoretic text the first two of them are called "books of Samuel" (v.) and the others "R. (book of) first and second." The Hebrew designation is preferable, according to which I and II of R. correspond to III and IV of the Vulgate (and Septuagint). Originally the two books of R. formed a single one, like the two of Samuel. The unity is maintained in the Syriac version. The division into two books, introduced by the Septuagint, passed into the Latin versions, and, belatedly (15th cent.), into the Hebrew Bible, first in the manuscripts, then in the printed edition edited by Felice da Prato and published by Daniele Bomberg (Venice 1516-17).
The books of R. embrace three clearly distinct periods: a) the united kingdom under David (last days) and Solomon (I Reg. 1-11); b) the two kingdoms of Israel and Judah (I Reg. 12; II Reg. 17); c) the kingdom of Judah from the fall of Israel to the Babylonian exile (II Reg. 18-25).
I. LAST DAYS OF DAVID AND REIGN OF SOLOMON, 970-930 (?) (I Reg. 1-11). - Against David, old and infirm (I Reg. 1, 1-4), Adonijah attempts to take his place, but the timely intervention of Nathan, through Bathsheba, secures the kingdom for Solomon (1, 5-53). Adonijah arouses new suspicions by asking for Abishag in marriage, and Solomon has him put to death (2, 13-25). Then Abiathar, the high priest, is deposed, and Joab is killed, both supporters of Adonijah: the former is succeeded by Zadok, the latter by Benaiah (2, 26-35); by whose hand Shimei also meets his end (2, 36-46). Marriage of Solomon to the daughter of the Pharaoh of Egypt (3, 1 ff.). God grants Solomon wisdom, which is immediately manifested in the well-known judgment (3, 4-28). Organization of the kingdom and other manifestations of Solomon's wisdom. Construction of the Temple and the palace, furnishings of the Temple (4-7). Transfer of the ark, discourse and prayer of Solomon, who blesses the people and offers sacrifices (8). Second divine appearance with promises and threats; cession of some cities to Hiram, new enterprises and new burdens (9). Visit of the queen of Sheba (10, 1-13). Splendor and luxury of Solomon (10, 14-29), led astray by pagan wives and concubines and reproved by God, who stirs up enemies against him, among them Jeroboam; summary of the reign and death of Solomon (11).
II. THE TWO KINGDOMS OF ISRAEL AND JUDAH, 930-722-121 B.C. (I Reg. 12. - II Reg. 17). - Schism, provoked by the discontent of the northern tribes, too heavily burdened with taxes, and by the imprudence of Rehoboam; Jeroboam king of the ten dissident tribes (I Reg. 12, 1-20). Relations between the two Kingdoms are almost always hostile, except during a period of agreement between the two reigning houses (c. 875-842 B.C.), until the fall of Israel (842-722-21 B.C.). The series revolves around the sovereigns of the two Kingdoms (the most probable chronology is indicated in this outline).
KINGS OF JUDAH
REHOBOAM (17 years: 930-914), attempts to subdue the rebellious tribes and suffers the invasion of Shishak of Egypt (I Reg. 12, 21-24; 14, 21-31).
ABIJAH (3 years: 914-912) (15, 1-8).
ASA (41 years: 912-872), pious king (14, 9-24).
KINGS OF ISRAEL
JEROBOAM (20 years: 930-911; or 22: 932-911), after the political schism he consummated the religious one, with the cult organized at Bethel and Dan, drawing the condemnation of his house through the mouth of the prophet Ahijah (I Reg. 12, 25-14, 20).
NADAB (2 years: 911-910), son of Jeroboam, was killed by Baasha (15, 25-32).
BAASHA (25 years: 910-887), usurper, at war with Asa (15, 33-16, 7).
ELAH (2 years: 887-886), killed by Zimri (16, 8-14).
ZIMRI (7 days: 886), usurper, overwhelmed by Omri, killed himself (16, 15-20).
OMRI (12 years: 886-875), founded the capital Samaria, gave prosperity to the Kingdom (16, 21-28).
AHAB (22 years: 875-854), impious, married the idolatrous Jezebel, introduced the cult of Baal, opposed by Elijah (16, 29-22, 40).
AHAZIAH (2 years: 854-853), a worthy son of Ahab (22, 52 ff.; II Reg. 1, 1-2, 25).
JORAM (12 years: 853-842), fought against Mesha of Moab and against Ben-hadad of Damascus, Activity of Elisha (II Reg. 3, 1-27; 4, 1-8, 15).
JEHU (28 years: 842-815), did justice to the line of Ahab and destroyed the cult of Baal; he was defeated by Hazael of Syria (9, 1-10, 36).
JEHOAHAZ (17 years: 815-798), Israel, oppressed by the Arameans, had a savior (Adad-nirari?) (13, 1-9).
JOASH (16 years: 798-783), defeated the Arameans (13, 10-25).
JEROBOAM II (41 years: 783-743), under him Israel reached its greatest power and extent (14, 23-29).
ZECHARIAH (6 months: 743), killed by Shallum (15, 8-12).
SHALLUM (1 month: 742), suppressed by Menahem (15, 13-16).
MENAHEM (6 [10] years: 742-737), pays a heavy tribute to Tiglath-pileser III (15, 16-22).
PEKAHIAH (Pāqahjāh) (2 years: 737-736), killed by Pekah (15, 23-26).
PEKAH (Peqah) (4 [20] years: 736-732), suppressed by Hoshea (15, 27-31).
HOSHEA (9 years: 732-724), having rebelled against Assyria, was imprisoned; Samaria fell after a three-year siege, 722-21. Origin of the Samaritans (17, 1-41).
III. THE KINGDOM OF JUDAH FROM THE FALL OF SAMARIA UNTIL THE EXILE
HEZEKIAH, a pious king, threatened with invasion by Sennacherib, was miraculously delivered; healed of a mortal illness; imprudently showed his treasures to Merodach Baladan (II Kings 18-20). MANASSEH was impious until nearly the end of his 55 years of reign (697[696]-642) (21, 1-18). AMON, impious like Manasseh, after two years of reign (642[641]-640) was killed by a court conspiracy; the people did justice upon the assassins and proclaimed as king the pious JOSIAH (31 years: 640[639]-609) (21, 19-26), who restored the Temple and promoted a radical religious reform; he died at Megiddo in the attempt to resist Pharaoh Necho (22, 1-23, 30). JEHOAHAZ (three months: 609) was taken prisoner by Necho, who placed on the throne Eliakim, under the name JEHOIAKIM, who reigned eleven years (609[608]-598), a tributary of Nebuchadnezzar (23, 31-34, 7). The latter also imprisoned the successor JEHOIACHIN after three months of reign (598) and created as king Mattaniah under the name ZEDEKIAH (598[597]-587). Jerusalem was besieged in the 9th year of Zedekiah and fell in the 11th (587); Zedekiah's (v.) sons were killed and his eyes put out. There followed the deportation of the people, the plundering of the Temple and the killing of the notables (24, 8-25, 21). Gedaliah, placed at the head of those remaining in Judah, was killed and the people fled to Egypt for fear of the Babylonians (25, 22-26). Jehoiachin's imprisonment was lightened by Evilmerodach (25, 27-30).
After the last days of David and the reign of Solomon are recounted, the narrative proceeds according to a constant scheme, especially in the parallel treatment of the kings of Judah and Israel. The introductory formula contains: a) a synchronistic indication of the year of accession to the throne with reference to the co-reigning king of Israel (I Kings 15, 1, 9; 22, 41 etc.) or of Judah (ibid. 15, 25, 33; 16, 8, 15, 23, 29; 22, 52 etc.); b) the duration of the reign (ibid. 15, 2, 10, 25, 33; 16, 8, 15, 23, 29; 22, 42, 52 etc.); c) a judgment on the character of the sovereign from the aspect of fidelity or less to religion. In this regard the kings of Israel are all compared to Jeroboam, who made his people sin (ibid. 15, 26 ff., 34; 16, 26 etc.). The kings of Judah are judged on the model of David, faithful par excellence. Some are very wicked: Abijah (ibid. 15, 23 ff.), Ahaz (II Kings 16, 2 ff.), Manasseh (ibid. 21, 9) etc.; several practiced substantially the religion of David, but showed tolerance toward the worship of the high places (thus also Jehoshaphat: I Kings 22, 44); very few merit unconditional praise for having practiced purely and simply the religion of Yahweh (Hezekiah: II Kings 18, 3 ff.; Josiah: ibid. 22, 2). The concluding formula contains: a) an indication of the source, to which the reader too is referred for fuller information (I Kings 14, 29; 15, 7, 25, 31; II Kings 8, 23; 10, 34 etc.); b) death and successor (I Kings 14, 31; 15, 8, 24; II Kings 8, 24; 10, 35 etc.). Non-constant elements are the indication of the age the sovereign was at the beginning of his reign (I Kings 22, 42; II Kings 14, 23); the name of the mother for the kings of Judah (II Kings 8, 26); the place of burial (I Kings 16, 28; 22, 51).
IV. HISTORICITY
The book of R. is undoubtedly a historical work; but it is a history with a thesis, in that it aims to demonstrate by facts that the happiness of the chosen people depends on observance of the divine law, just as from non-observance derive the misfortunes of the house of Judah and of that of Israel (cf. II Reg. 17, 7-23). Consequently, the religious element occupies the foreground in this history. The action of the prophets, moreover, is highlighted with particular care (extensive narratives that form the cycles of Elijah and Elisha: I Reg. 17-II Reg. 1; II Reg. 2-13), because they were the defenders of religion, with the authority to call to it both the people and its kings and its priests. Another characteristic is the dynastic one, that is, the demonstration of the legitimacy of the single Davidic dynasty that reigns in Judah, against the many schismatic ones that succeed one another in Israel. The captive king Jehoiachin himself, whose head Evilmerodach "lifts up" (II Reg. 25, 27), acquires almost the value of a symbol and a pledge for the future of the deported people. Against the single house of David in Judah (the parenthesis of Athaliah closes quickly with the advent of the surviving heir of David) stand fully nine reigning families in Israel, over the span of two hundred years. The two books of R. bear evi-
JEHOSHAPHAT (25 years: 872-849), good but weak, so much so as to give his own son Jehoram in marriage to the daughter of Ahab, Athaliah (22, 41-44, 47-51).
JEHORAM (8 years: 849-842), an impious king (II Reg. 8, 16-24).
AHAZIAH (1 year: 842): he fought with Jehoram, king of Israel, against the Arameans and was killed by Jehu (8, 25-29; 9, 14-30).
ATHALIAH (7 years: 842-836), usurper through the slaughter of all the members of the royal house; but Joash escapes her; by order of the high priest Jehoiada she was killed (11, 1-20).
JOASH (40 years: 836-797), restored the Temple; he was killed (12, 1-22).
AMAZIAH (15 [29] years: 797-783): he was defeated by Joash of Israel and fell victim to a conspiracy (14, 1-22).
AZARIAH (Uzziah, Oziah: 27 [52] years: 783-757): good, but struck by leprosy he leaves the government to his son Jotham (15, 1-7).
JOTHAM (16 years: 757-742), a pious king.
AHAZ (16 years: 741-736), a paganizing king, obtained the help of Assyria against the Syria-Israel coalition (16, 1-20).
HEZEKIAH (29 years: 726 [725]-697).
dent signs of compilation. The author has sometimes limited himself to juxtaposing the documents without taking care to avoid duplicates, resulting from the fact that the different sources contained the same notices. Among the various cases of this kind let us note: I Reg. 5, 1 and 5, 4 (extension of Solomon's dominion); ibid. 5, 6-30 and 10, 23-36 (wealth and magnificence of Solomon; tributes paid to him); ibid. 9, 28 and 10, 11 (riches imported from Ophir); II Reg. 13, 12 ff.
and 14, 16 ff. (end of Joash). Nevertheless this does not take away the unity of composition, witnessed by the schematism that governs the book, by the spirit that animates it and by the demonstrative ends which the narrative serves. Indications of the unity of composition are also certain recurring formulas, such as: "sin of Jeroboam" (eight times in I Reg. and nine in II Reg.) "to do what is evil in the eyes of the Lord" (thirty times in the two books); "for the sake of David my servant" (I Reg. 13, 32, 34; 15, 4; II Reg. 8, 19; 19, 34; 20, 6); "mingens ad parietem" (I Reg. 14, 10; 16, 11; 21, 21; II Reg. 9, 8; elsewhere only in I Sam. 25, 22, 34).
The following sources are explicitly cited: the Book of the acts of Solomon (I Reg. 11, 41); the Annals of the Kings of Judah (15 times, the first for Rehoboam [I Reg. 14, 29], the last for Jehoiachin [II Reg. 24, 5]); the Annals of the Kings of Israel (18 times, the first for Jeroboam [I Reg. 14, 19], the last for Pekah [II Reg. 15, 31]). It is discussed whether these sources are official or private. If they were official, one would have one more reason to suppose in R. the existence of other sources with which would be explained the relation of facts and judgments little honorable for the sovereigns, which sources of courtly inspiration could not contain; but it is more probable that they were private compilations that had made use of the official sources.
Of the sources not explicitly cited in the book of R. some must have been of courtly origin, from which would derive the list of the ministers and prefects of Solomon (I Reg. 4, 2-19), the panegyric of his greatness (ibid. 4, 20-34), the account of the visit of the Queen of Sheba (ibid. 10, 1-29); others of priestly origin, which narrate the construction of the Temple (ibid. 6, 1-7, 50), the revolt against Athaliah, organized by the high priest Jehoiada (II Reg. 11, 1-20), the restorations of the Temple under Joash (ibid. 12, 1-16), the religious reform of Josiah (ibid. 22, 3-23, 27) etc.; others, finally, of prophetic origin, whence the invective of a prophet against Jeroboam and the altar built by him in Bethel (I Reg. 13, 1-23), the reproach to Ahab (ibid. 20, 1-45). To this last category belong as a block the cycles of Elijah (I Reg. 17 - II Reg. 1) and of Elisha (II Reg. 2-13), which have well-defined contours for the style and for the spirit that informs them. Not all, perhaps, of these sources were written: some could have reached the compiler through oral tradition.
That the books of R., as they present themselves at present, are posterior by some tens of years to the fall of Jerusalem (587 B.C.) is gathered from the episode narrated in II Reg. 25, 27-30. Evilmerodach (562-560 B.C.) granted pardon to Jehoiachin, king of Judah, liberating him from prison and assuring him a dignified treatment, along with other dethroned kings; which, says the redactor, lasted until the death of Jehoiachin, whence one would have to go down various time after the accession to the throne of Evilmerodach. But it may be a redactional note, added long after the first compilation, which, thus, may be not only anterior to the liberation of Jehoiachin from prison, but to the exile and the fall of Jerusalem. Of this there are sufficiently clear indications in I Reg. 8, 8 (the area of the Ark still exists in the Temple); II Reg. 8, 22 (Edom is free from the dominion of Israel, until the present), in the insistence on the promises of an uninterrupted succession for the dynasty of David, too much in contrast with the fall of the kingdom of Judah and the fate that befell Zedekiah and his family (II Reg. 25, 7).
V. AUTHOR
Nothing positive can be said about the author. He would have been Jeremiah, according to rabbinic tradition (Bābhā' Kathrā', 15 a), taken up by St. Isidore (De eccl. off., I, 12, 1; PL 85, 747), by Sixtus of Siena (Biblioteca sancta, I, Venice 1575, p. 31), by Cornelius a Lapide (Comm. in Scripturam S., III, Ios. - III Reg., Paris 1866, p. 251), regarded favorably, among the moderns, by R. Cornely (Historica et critica Introductio in utriusque Test. libros sacros, II, 1, 2nd ed., Paris 1897, p. 293 ff.), M. Hetzenauer (Theologia biblica, I, Freiburg 1908, p. 351) and a few others (cf. H. Höpfl - A. Miller - A. Metzinger [v. bibl.], p. 167 ff.); this can be explained by a certain analogy in the manner of conceiving and judging between the two books of R. and that of Jeremiah, but especially by the identity of content of II Reg. 24, 18-25, 21, 27-30 (25, 22-26 are a summary of the account in Ier. 40, 7-41, 18) and of Ier. 52. But it is more likely that a redactor of the oracles of Jeremiah borrowed from the book of R. material that was a fitting conclusion to the prophetic book, demonstrating the fulfillment of the prophecies.
The constant reference to sources is already a good criterion for judging the reliability of the information. The content of R. also finds frequent verification in other historical books, and in the prophetic ones (cf. among many cases: Hos. 7, 7; 8, 4 = II Reg. 15, 10, 14, 25; Hos. 5, 13; 7, 11; 8, 9; 12, 2 = II Reg. 15, 17-20; Am. 7, 10; 4, 1-6 = II Reg. 14, 23-29; It. 7, 1-12 = II Reg. 16, 5; It. 36, 1-37, 38 = II Reg. 18, 13-19, 37, etc.). The Egyptian, Assyrian, Neo-Babylonian and Palestinian documents and monuments brought to light by excavations have often given surprising confirmations of the historical value of the biblical narrative. Thus, to limit ourselves to a few examples, an inscription from the Temple of Amun at Karnak recalls the victories of Shoshenq (945-924 B.C.) in Syria and Palestine, with the names of various cities either conquered or subjected to tribute; this is the Shishak who plundered Jerusalem according to I Reg. 14, 25 f. The inscription of Shalmaneser II (859-826 B.C.) - the black obelisk - places Jehu of Israel too among the kings who pay tribute. Neo-Babylonian documents confirm the datum of II Reg. 25, 27 ff. concerning the provisions supplied to the deposed king Jehoiachin from the table of Evil-merodach (cf. E. F. Weidner, Jojachin, König von Juda, in babylonischen Keilschrifttexten, in Mélanges syriens offerts à R. Dussand, II, Paris 1939, pp. 923-35; A. Bea, König Jojachin in Keilschrifttexten, in Biblica, 23 [1942], pp. 78-82). The inscription of Mesha, king of Moab, confirms II Reg. 3, 4-27. Much light, moreover, has come to the books of R. from the excavations of Samaria, of Lachish (Lachish letters = Tell ed-Duweir) and of Megiddo (Mageddo = Tell-el-Mutesellim). At Megiddo, I Reg. 9, 19 (Solomon's stables) finds an imposing confirmation. Cf. H. Lusseau-M. Collomb (v. bibl.), pp. 209-22; H. Höpfl - A. Miller - A. Metzinger (v. bibl.), p. 169.
Various problems arise from the chronological data of the books of R., and numerous hypotheses have been advanced to resolve them. From the relationship between the duration of the individual reigns and the regnal year of the co-regent king of Judah or Israel difficulties arise, since the number of years does not coincide in periods that should be of equal duration. In the periods from Rehoboam to the usurpation of Athaliah and from Jeroboam to the accession of Jehu, which should coincide perfectly, the kings of Judah reign 95 years and those of Israel 98. For the subsequent period, which extends to the fall of Samaria, the years of the various reigns in Judah add up to 165, in Israel to 143. Then, taking into account that Jehu pays his tribute to Shalmaneser III, according to the Assyrian documents, around the year 842, and that Samaria fell in 721, this period should be further reduced to about 120 years. To resolve these and other difficulties, recourse has been had to the hypothesis that in one of the two kingdoms the method of antedating was followed in computing the years from the sovereign, while in the other the method of postdating was followed, attributing, in the first case, the entire year of his accession to the throne to the new sovereign, and in the second, beginning to count his regnal years from the start of the new civil year. It has also been thought that in one kingdom the new year began in the month of nisāu and in the other in the month of ṭīrī. There could have been co-regencies, with the consequence that the same years were counted twice. Some error may be attributed to copyists and to careless correctors. Overcoming the distrust of St. Jerome (Epit. 72 ad Vitalem; PL 22, 676), who regarded the task of reconciling the dates of the books of R. as an occupation of idlers, many moderns have devoted themselves to this thankless work, with results partly satisfactory, but far from being definitive.
The Hebrew text of R. is relatively well preserved, with the exception of chapters 6 and 7 of I Reg., where the Greek version of the Septuagint offers a much clearer and more orderly text. In general this version is an excellent tool for correcting the Masoretic text, especially in the form preserved by the Lucianic recension, which has undergone the influence of the original text less than the original one. With the Lucianic recension of the Septuagint the Old Latin agrees almost constantly. The Vulgate is the first fruit of the labor of St. Jerome as translator of the Bible from the Hebrew: a faithful and elegant translation.
Bibliography3 works
(La S. Bibbia. Il Vecchio Test., 3), Turin 1924, pp. 5-236; S. Landersdorfer, Bonn 1927; A. Vaccari - A. Parenti (La S. Bibbia tradotta dai testi originali, 3, 1, I libri storici), Florence 1947, pp. 311-479; A. Méchielle (La Sti Bible, di L. Pirot-A. Clamer, 3), Paris 1949, pp. 563-800; R. De Vaux, ibid. 1949; S. Garofalo, Turin-Rome 1951. Non-Catholic: R. Kittel, Göttingen 1910; J. Skinner, London 1904; W. E. Barnes, Cambridge 1908; F. H. Hennessy, ibid. 1922; H. I. Carpenter, London 1927; J. A. Montgomery, Edinburgh 1951. For the introduction: H. Lusseau - M. Collomb, Manuel d'études bibliques, II, Paris 1934, pp. 193-228; H. Höpfl - A. Miller - A. Metzinger, Introductio specialis in Vet. Test., in Introductionis in sacro-utritique Testamenti libros compendium, II, Rome 1946, pp. 150-73. For chronology cf., among the many studies: V. Coucke, Chronologie biblique, in DBs, I, coll. 1245-69; A. M. Kleber, The Chronology of 3 and 4 Kings and 2 Paralipomenon, in Biblica, 2 (1921), pp. 3-29, 170-205; F. X. Kugler, Von Mos: 3 bis Paulus, Münster 1922, pp. 134-200; J. Lewy, Die Chronologie der Könige von Israel und Juda, Giessen 1927; H. Händer, Die biblische Chronologie des 3. Jahrhunderts v. Chr., in Bibl., 10 (1929), pp. 257-74, 377-98; 11 (1930), pp. 63-80; S. Mowinckel, Die Chronologie der israelitischen und jüdischen Könige, Leiden 1932.
Teodorico da Castel San Pietro