SAMUEL (Heb. Šēmîšēl). - The last "judge" (v.) of Israel, founder of the monarchy, prophet, who lived in the 11th century B.C. He gave his name to the book of the Bible that recounts the history of him, of Saul and of David. His father, Elkanah (v.), a Levite, was from Ramathaim (present-day Rentis = Arimathea) in the mountainous territory of Ephraim (1 Sam. 1:1). His mother was Hannah (v.), who, being barren, obtained him from the Lord (ibid. 1:9-20) and, having raised him, handed him over to the high priest Eli (v.) at Shiloh, so that he might serve the Lord in perpetuity.
While still a youth, he received from God a revelation concerning the house of Eli, then others, which always came true, so that all Israel recognized him as a prophet. As an adult, he freed the nation from the Philistines, then until old age exercised the "judgeship," which had a marked character of religious reform, traveling throughout the country (ibid. 7). He resided, however, in his native city, where people gathered from everywhere to consult him (ibid. 9:6-13), and from where he gave impetus to associations of "prophets" (v.), whom he used in his work of reform (ibid. 10:5, 10; 19:18-20). In his last years he was assisted in the "judgeship" by two sons, who were, however, too unlike their father, which, together with grave historical reasons (e.g., the impending Philistine danger), led the people to ask him for a king. S. reluctantly agreed to the request, and by God's command anointed as king the Benjaminite Saul (v.). He then laid down the office of judge (ibid. 12), but he continued thereafter to transmit to the King, on occasion, God's commands (ibid. 15:1 ff.). After Saul's transgression, S. anointed as king the young David (v.). He died very old (ibid. 25:1), and, after death, appeared to Saul, who wished to know the outcome of the battle of Gilboa, foretelling to him defeat and death (ibid. 28:6-19).
According to St. Jerome (PL 23, 343), the emperor Arcadius (d. 408) transported the bones of S. from Judea to Thrace; and Nicephorus Callistus relates (PG 146, 1090) that the empress Pulcheria (d. 453) transferred them to Constantinople, placing them in a "burial place built near the Hebdomon."
S. was one of the purest saints of Israel. He was not born a man of action, and yet he accomplished as much as perhaps none of the preceding "judges." He was of the Lord and for the Lord always, without a moment's hesitation: his badge, throughout his whole life, was an obedience proof against every trial. He was not a man of arms, but an apostle, a father. A father for the people and especially for the first King, consecrated by him, upon the whose ruin he wept bitter tears (I Sam. 15:11-35; 16:1). In character, however, he was austere. He was indignant against those who strayed from the path traced by God (ibid. 13:11-14; 15:16-33). He was great and heroic in his fidelity and in his zeal. Jeremiah (15:1) will place him immediately after Moses for the power of his intercession; Dante will see him as inferior only to Moses in Paradise (Par., IV, 29).
BOOKS OF SAMUEL
A book (the division into two books is not attested before A.D. 1448) that in the Bible follows the Octateuch (Pentateuch, Joshua, Judges, Ruth, which in the Hebrew Bibles is included among the mèghillòth). It improperly bears its present name, for Samuel was not its author, as the Talmud would have it, nor is he the predominant figure in it: it was perhaps so called because of the false literary attribution. In the Septuagint and in the Vulgate it is entitled Books I-II Regum (Βασιλείων, "of the kingdoms").
(Int. Enc. Cott.)
The long narrative presents itself, in construction and design, as one and compact, wholly directed toward a single end. It is natural to divide it into two blocks (today's two books), centered on Saul and David. Everything that precedes in the first book — the story of Eli ([v.] chaps. 1-3), of the Ark ([v.] chaps. 4-6), of Samuel (chaps. 7-8) — is nothing but preparation for the coming of Saul ([v.] chaps. 9-31). David (v.), although he enters the scene at the middle of book I (I Sam. 16:12 ff.), dominates the narrative only in book II (II Sam. 2-4, king of Judah; 5-9, king of all Israel; 10-20, David's sin and manifold atonement). An appendix of six varied documents (ibid. 21-24) now closes, or rather interrupts, the history that in ancient times ended with the succession of Solomon and the death of David (I Kings 1-2).
The subject is the introduction and stabilization of royal power in Israel. But this was only the visible part of the divine plan: to reveal the other, hidden part was the author's purpose. For centuries Israel had kept its eye fixed on the future Messiah; he was awaited clothed in royal power (Gen. 49:8 ff.; Num. 24:17 ff.). Samuel sets another milestone: the awaited one would be a king of the family of David, and would have an everlasting kingdom (II Sam. 7). It was necessary therefore to show how the passage had been made from the "judgeship" to royal power; how the attempt of the Benjaminite Saul had failed; how David's power, despite innumerable difficulties, had firmly established itself.
The original Hebrew text of Samuel has suffered as that of few other books of the Old Testament has; it nevertheless preserves the substance, both as regards history and as regards doctrine. Moreover, textual criticism gives valid help in healing many of these wounds inflicted by time. The base text is the Masoretic text (Biblia Hebraica of R. Kittel-P. Kahle, Stuttgart 1937). Of the very first importance is the Greek version of the Septuagint of the 2nd century B.C., transmitted in various recensions (it is commonly read in the edition of A. Rahlfs, Septuaginta, Stuttgart 1935); it is generally of an extraordinary fidelity, but has, in relation to the Masoretic text, both notable lacunae and notable excesses. The most celebrated lacunae are in I Sam. 17-18, on which judgment is difficult. Of lesser help are the Aramaic (Targum of Jonathan, 1st century B.C.), Syriac (Pèshitta, of uncertain date), Old Latin (2nd century A.D.) and Hieronymian (Vulgate, A.D. 393; Benedictine critical edition of 1944) versions. It should be recalled here that many sections of Samuel are also found in the book of Chronicles; this is of great help to criticism, but at the same time raises many problems.
The canonicity of Samuel has never been called into question, either in Judaism or in the Church.
The book, together with a magnificent unity of design, presents notable unevennesses. It has many passages where the description is extremely minute (e.g., I Sam. 1; 9-10; 25; II Sam. 9-20), without however claiming a complete biographical form; many other passages instead, of greater historical, political, social value, are composed in a very schematic form (e.g., I Sam. 7:15 ff.; 14:47-52; II Sam. 8:1-18, etc.). Many pages are authentic narrative masterpieces; others are arid enumerations. Finally, some episodes are reported more than once with considerable differences. From this one may conclude: a) the book is not a narrative written at a single stroke, but a compilation from various pre-existing sources, written and oral; b) the compilation was made by a single author, with a precise plan; it was not a successive stratification of documents; c) even if "duplicates" must sometimes be admitted, true "contradictions" perhaps never occur (I Sam. 17-18 merits separate examination, where the textual question is unresolved); in general the same phenomenon occurs that is discussed among the various narratives of the Synoptic Gospels; d) most of the material goes back to the very era of the events (the judgment concerning II Sam. 9-20 is in agreement).
The author of the entire book is unknown, but he must have lived in the 10th-9th centuries B.C.; the appendix (II Sam. 21-24) in fact could not have been added after the 8th century, when the first book of Psalms, which contains II Sam. 22, already existed. Subsequently the book still underwent some intentional retouching, but of slight importance.
In the rationalist camp hypotheses abound, often arbitrary, which yield astonishing and contradictory results, because of the extreme subjectivity of the criteria. Failed, for example, has been every attempt so far to separate the primitive documents (J. Wellhausen, 1871): something that, moreover, would not resolve a single difficulty.
The historicity is solidly founded, because of the antiquity of the sources, the marked impartiality of judgment and the many confirmations, although sometimes only indirect.
For example, the religious and political situation agrees with that described in the book of Judges; the chronology of the Philistine invasion corresponds to the Egyptian data and their presence in certain localities (Beth-shan; near Jerusalem) has been confirmed by archaeology; the establishment of a strong national monarchy in Israel is historically understandable because of the contemporaneous precarious conditions of Assyria and Egypt, attested by their respective histories. Political institutions (court offices: II Sam. 8:16 ff.; 20:23 ff.) and military ones (the "thirty": II Sam. 23:13-29) are of Egyptian derivation.
The importance of Samuel is very great, from the artistic, historical and religious sides alike. The artistic value is commonly admitted, and is especially evident in the painting of characters, who are a multitude. The narrative is of an ever new and varied interest, with gripping exploits (I Sam. 14), profound feelings, rages and idylls, enthusiasms and discouragements: life entire. For the history of the first monarchy and of prophetism Samuel is irreplaceable; it moreover increases our knowledge concerning customs, mentality, beliefs. Religiously, the first interest of Samuel derives from messianism: literal (II Sam. 7; 23:1-7; I Sam. 2:10) and figurative (David as a type of the suffering and betrayed Christ); but teachings of a moral character abound, especially regarding sin and forgiveness.
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Gino Bressan