PSALMS. – Poetic compositions, of prayer or instruction, used in both Israelite and Christian worship, whose collection of 150 forms in the Bible the book of Psalms or Psalter (v.). The book of Psalms occupies a place of primary importance among the sacred books: among the Hebrews only the Pentateuch precedes it in importance; in the New Testament it is the most cited book after that of Isaiah. The Church received it as an expression of public prayer and as a prophetic book, and therefore among the books of the Old Testament it is the most used and most commented upon.
The name of the Psalter, in the Masoretic text Tĕhillîm («Praises»), cannot be rigorously applied to the individual psalms, which vary in nature and content. The same is true of the Greek name ψαλμοί: ψαλμοί indeed translates the Hebrew mizmôr, «a song to be performed with stringed instruments».
The number of psalms, both in the Masoretic text and in the Septuagint, is 150; but it should be noted that in the Septuagint (followed by the Vulgate) Ps. 9 comprises Ps. 9-10 Heb., and Ps. 113 comprises Ps. 114-15 Heb.; whereas Ps. 116 and 147 Heb. are divided into two (Ps. 114-15 and 146-47 Gr. respectively). In general, the Masoretic numbering exceeds that of the Septuagint by one unit from Ps. 10 to Ps. 147. Both numbering systems are imperfect (e.g., Ps. 42 and 43 certainly form a single psalm); however, modern scholars generally follow the Hebrew numbering. Some repetitions further reduce the actual number of psalms. Thus Ps. 53 repeats Ps. 14; Ps. 70 repeats Ps. 40, 14-18; Ps. 108 is made up of Ps. 57, 8-12 plus 60, 7-14.
The divisions of the Psalter bear witness to the progressive formation of the book. First, the Masoretic text divides the psalms into 5 books (1-41; 42-72; 73-89; 90-106; 107-50), distinguished by a brief doxology placed at the end of the first four, and foreign to the context of the psalm in which it is found. This division is not indicated by the Septuagint, which, however, by translating the four doxologies, is an authoritative indirect witness to II. Indeed, the fact that 1 Chron. 16:36 cites the end of Ps. 106 and the doxology that closes the fourth book, allows us to trace the division into five books perhaps to the time of Nehemiah.
But comparative study of the Hebrew text reveals three broader and older sections. In Books I and IV-V, indeed, the personal name of God, Yahweh, prevails; whereas in Books II-III the clear preference is given to the name of the divine nature, Elohim, which, however, often reveals itself according to the substitute section for the original Yahweh (cf. Ps. 14 with 53; 40, 14-18 with 70; moreover, Yahweh is required by grammar in Ps. 59:6; 80:5, 8, 20; and by style in Ps. 43:4; 45:8; 48:15; 50:7). The section formed by Books II-III therefore had, for a period, an independent existence from the other two, and then underwent the revision of which it bears the traces. This likely occurred in the time of Persian domination.
In Book IV, moreover, other smaller and older collections are recognized: such are the psalms of the sons of Korah (42-49), those of Asaph (50; 73-83), three Davidic collections (51-72; 108-10; 138-45), the gradual psalms (120-34), those of the Kingdom of God (92-100), the hallelujah psalms (105-107; 111-18; 134-135; 145-50).
The long elaboration that the Psalter had to undergo before reaching the state in which the Septuagint found it is alone sufficient to refute the thesis dear to many independent critics, who place the origin at least of the majority of the psalms in the Maccabean age (2nd century B.C.).
The titles found at the beginning of many psalms are a confirmation of their antiquity. In many cases, indeed, the Alexandrian translators were no longer able to understand their meaning; which supposes a period of time long enough for it to be forgotten. These titles concern the nature of the psalm, the occasion and manner of its performance, the instruments with which it should be accompanied, the melodies to which it should be sung, and especially the authors. Much has been discussed about their value. One cannot deny the obscurities and the not infrequent uncertainties of the manuscript texts. There are also some evident errors, as in the case of Ps. 136, a song of the exiles in Babylon, which the Septuagint and the Vulgate attribute to David. But in general it can be said that the antiquity enjoyed by these titles and the consistency with which they are placed (e.g., the Davidic psalms resemble one another in form and content, and agree with the character of David as known from the historical books) are a notable confirmation of the traditional tendency.
The authors to whom some psalms are unanimously attributed are: David (69), Asaph (12), the sons of Korah (10), Solomon (2), Moses, Heman, and Ethan (1). The other psalms are anonymous or of uncertain attribution. The most important question concerns David, to whom independent criticism has attempted to deny at least the majority of the psalms that bear his name. It should be noted, however, that critics proceed mainly on the basis of systematic prejudices, since all the positive arguments in favor of the «beloved singer of Israel» (1 Sam. 23:1) are lacking. What is historically known of him attests to his musical and poetic talent; the songs attributed to him faithfully reflect his heroic and gentle soul, tender in friendship, entirely trusting in God, but sometimes also violent. This is not to exclude that certain Davidic psalms may have been, for example, for liturgical reasons, somewhat revised or have undergone some additions: this does not affect the substance of their authenticity.
To the historical problems posed by the Psalter corresponds the literary problem, to whose solution the analysis of literary genres, of which H. Gunkel was a pioneer, has recently made a notable contribution. He distinguishes the literary genres of the Psalms on the basis of their «situation in life», which, since it concerns cultural texts, resolves itself into the «situation in the divine service», that is, in the destination and function of the individual psalms in Hebrew worship. On this basis Gunkel distinguishes the fundamental genres of psalms: hymns, public laments, private laments, and songs of thanksgiving. There are also minor genres, such as: songs of enthronement of Yahweh, royal psalms, didactic or sapiential songs, pilgrim songs, etc. It is relatively easy to note how each of these genres has a constant fundamental structure (though treated by the Hebrews with far greater freedom and variety of inspiration than the related genres found in other Oriental literatures). For example, in the individual lamentation psalms one finds these elements: an initial invocation, the exposition of the case, an expression of trust in God, a prayer, and for the most part a final promise of thanks and praise.
This literary analysis (when it does not stop at the aesthetic point of view) can greatly aid in understanding the doctrinal content of the Psalter. Precisely because it is an expression of Israel’s worship of God, the psalms are necessarily an expression of its faith and religiosity, and therefore they are the richest and most varied document of the Old Testament regarding doctrine both about God and about man and his relations with God, which are concretized in messianic faith. Of God,