SALMI. - Poetic compositions, of prayer or instruction, employed in both Israelite and Christian worship, whose collection of 150 forms in the Bible the book of the S. or Psalter (v.). The book of the S. occupies a prominent place among the sacred books: among the Jews only the Pentateuch precedes it in importance; in the New Testament it is the most frequently cited book after that of Isaiah. The Church accepted it as an expression of public prayer and as a prophetic book, and consequently among the books of the Old Testament it is the most widely used and commented upon.
The name of the Psalter, in the Masoretic text Tēhillim (« Praises »), cannot strictly be applied to the individual psalms, which vary in character and content. The same is true of the Greek name ψαλμοί: ψαλμός; for it translates the Hebrew mizmōr « song to be performed with stringed instruments ».
The number of psalms both in the Masoretic text and among the Septuagint is 150; but it should be noted that for the Septuagint (followed by the Vulgate) Ps. 9 comprises Hebrew Ps. 9-10, and Ps. 113 comprises Hebrew Ps. 114-15; Hebrew Ps. 116 and 147, on the other hand, are divided into two (respectively Greek Ps. 114-15 and 146-47); at the beginning, the numbering of the Masoretic text exceeds that of the Septuagint by one unit from Ps. 10 to Ps. 147. Both numberings are imperfect (e.g. Ps. 42 and 43 certainly constitute a single psalm); modern scholars, however, generally follow the Hebrew numbering. Some repetitions further reduce the actual number of psalms somewhat. Thus Ps. 53 repeats Ps. 14; Ps. 70 repeats Ps. 40, 14-18; Ps. 108 consists of Ps. 57, 8-12 plus 60, 7-14.
The divisions of the Psalter bear witness to the book’s progressive formation. First of all, the Masoretic text divides the psalms into 5 books (1-41; 42-72; 73-89; 90-106; 107-50), distinguished by a brief doxology placed at the end of the first four and unrelated to the context of the psalms in which it occurs. This division is not indicated by the Septuagint, which, however, by translating the four doxologies, provides authoritative indirect testimony to II. Indeed, the fact that I Chron. 16, 36 cites the end of Ps. 106 and the doxology that closes the fourth book allows the division into five books to be dated perhaps to the time of Nehemiah.
But comparative study of the Hebrew text reveals three broader and more ancient sections. In Books I and IV-V, in fact, the personal name Jahweh predominates for God; in Books II-III, on the other hand, clear preference is given to the name of the divine nature, Elōhim, which, however, often proves secondary and substituted for the original Jahweh (cf. Ps. 14 with 53; 40, 14-18 with 70; moreover, Jahweh is required by the grammar in Ps. 59, 6; 80, 5, 8, 20; and by the style in Ps. 43, 4; 45, 8; 48, 15; 50, 7). The section formed by Books II-III therefore existed, for a period, independently of the other two, and at that time underwent the revision of which it bears traces. This probably occurred during the period of Persian rule.
In Books II-V, moreover, other smaller and more ancient collections can be recognized: such are the psalms of the sons of Korah (42-49), those of Asaph (50; 73-83), three Davidic collections (51-72;
108-10; 138-45), the gradual psalms (120-34), those of the Kingdom of God (92-100), and the hallelujah psalms (105-107; 111-18; 134-135; 145-50).
The lengthy elaboration that the Psalter must have undergone before reaching the form in which it was found by the Septuagint is in itself sufficient to refute the thesis favored by many independent critics, which places the origin of at least the majority of the psalms in the age of the Maccabees (2nd century B.C.). The titles found at the beginning of many psalms confirm their antiquity. In many cases, in fact, the Alexandrian translators were no longer able to understand their meaning; this presupposes a period of time long enough for it to have been forgotten. These titles concern the nature of the psalm, the occasion and manner of its performance, the instruments with which it is to be accompanied, the melodies to which it is to be sung, and especially the authors. Much has been debated concerning their value. The obscurities and not infrequent uncertainties of the manuscript texts cannot be denied. There are also some evident errors, as in the case of Ps. 136, the song of the exiles in Babylon, which the Septuagint and the Vulgate attribute to David. In general, however, it may be said that the antiquity enjoyed by these titles and the consistency with which they are assigned (e.g., the Davidic psalms resemble one another in form and content, and accord with the character of David as known from the historical books) provide notable confirmation of the traditional tendency.
The authors to whom certain psalms are unanimously attributed are: David (60), Asaph (12), the sons of Korah (10), Solomon (2), Moses, Heman and Ethan (1). The other psalms are anonymous or of uncertain attribution. The most important question concerns David, from whom independent criticism has attempted to withdraw at least the majority of the psalms that bear his name. It should nevertheless be noted that critics proceed principally on the basis of systematic prejudices, since all the positive arguments available are in favor of the « amiable singer of Israel » (I Sam. 23, 1). Whatever is known of him historically attests his musical and poetic talent; the songs attributed to him faithfully reflect his heroic and gentle soul, tender in friendship, wholly trusting in God, but at times also violent. This does not exclude the possibility that certain Davidic psalms may have been somewhat revised, for example, for liturgical reasons, or may have undergone some addition: this does not affect the substance of their authenticity.
The historical problems posed by the Psalter correspond to the literary problem, whose solution has recently received a notable contribution from the analysis of literary genres, pioneered by H. Gunkel. He distinguishes the literary genres of the S. on the basis of their « situation in life », which, since these are cultic texts, resolves itself into the « situation in divine service », that is, the purpose and function of the individual psalms in Hebrew worship. On this basis Gunkel distinguished 4 fundamental genres of psalms: hymns, public laments, private laments, and songs of thanksgiving. There are also minor genres, such as: songs of the enthronement of Jahweh, royal psalms, didactic or sapiential songs, pilgrim songs, etc. It is relatively easy to observe that each of these genres has a constant fundamental structure (although among the Jews it was treated with far greater freedom and variety of inspiration than in the related genres found in other Eastern literatures). For example, in the psalms of individual lament the following elements are found: an initial invocation, an account of the situation, an expression of trust in God, a prayer, and usually a final promise of thanks and praise.
This literary analysis (when it does not stop at the aesthetic point of view) can greatly aid understanding of the doctrinal content of the Psalter. Precisely because they are an expression of Israel’s worship of God, the psalms are necessarily an expression of its faith and religiosity, and are therefore the richest and most varied document in the Old Testament for doctrine concerning both God and man and his relations with God, which find concrete expression in messianic faith. God’s existence is for the most part presupposed as a certain and indisputable fact; but at times it is also explicitly demonstrated (Ps. 8; 19, 2-5; 94, 8-10; 104 etc.); above all, however, his attributes are exalted: goodness, justice, fidelity, mercy. Man is viewed principally as rooted in the people and in the promises implicit in the Covenant; but his greatness is also exalted as an individual, and his immortality is affirmed as a fact (the state after death, on the other hand, is shrouded in darkness). The idea of the Messiah agrees in the S. with that of the entire Old Testament: it has universal scope and implies God’s judgment upon all nations. Often the messianic interpretation of the S. is based on typology; there are, however, also expressions and prophecies referring to the Messiah as a concrete individual, as in the « messianic » psalms themselves.
This richness of doctrinal and prophetic-religious content, combined with the example of Jesus, who at the high points of his life used the words of the S. as an expression of his feelings, and with the practice of the Apostles and the first Palestinian Christians, explains why the Church made the S. its prayer par excellence. In this way, moreover, the book of the S. rises to the function of a sign, the most tangible, if not the most real, of the continuity of the two Testaments.
BIBLI: for the text of the Vulgate: G. Hoberg, Die Psalmen der Vulgata übersetzt u. nach dem Literaturn. erklärt, Freiburg im Breisgau 1906; J. Knabenbauer, Commentarius in Psalmos, Paris 1912. For translations from the Hebrew text and commentaries: F. Wutz, Die Psalmen textkritisch untersucht, Munich 1923; D. M. Tricerri, I Cantici divisi. Introduzione, traduzione, commento estetico, Rome–Turin 1925–26; M. Sales, I S., ibid. 1934; H. Herkenne, Das Buch der Psalmen, Bonn 1936; J. Calès, Le livre des Psalmes traduit et commenté, Paris 1936; A. Vaccaro, La S. Bibbia tradutia dai testi originali... IV. I libri poetici, 1, Florence 1949; E. Zolli, Il S., Milan 1951 (version from the Hebrew and commentary). Protestant commentaries: A. F. Kirkpatrick, The book of Psalm, Cambridge 1901; R. Kittel, Die Psalmen übersetzt u. erklärt, Leipzig 1922; H. Gunkel, Die Psalmen, Göttingen 1933; H. Schmidt, Die Psalmen, Tübingen 1934. The new Latin version made from the Hebrew text was published by the Pontifical Biblical Institute: Liber Psalmonum cum Cantici Breviarii Romani, Rome 1945; A. Bea, V. i. latino. Chiarimenti sull'origine e lo spirito della traduzione, 2nd ed., ibid. 1946; P. Galetto, I S. e i Cantici del Breviario romano, ibid. 1949. Giorgio Castellino