JUDGES. – The name given to the leaders of Israel (Heb. שׁוֹפְטִים, plur. שׁוֹפְטִים; cf. the sufetes of the Carthaginians: Liv., 28, 27, 2; 30, 7, 5), during the period after Joshua until Samuel, whose deeds are narrated in the biblical book titled after them.
At the death of Joshua, in order to continue the work he had firmly begun, though far from completed, of settling in the land of Canaan, Israel did not feel the need to give itself a leader.
From the time of the conquest under Joshua, the various “tribes,” as they occupied their territories, began to govern themselves, engaged in problems
that for each one in particular created its own occupation and the new forms of life that were replacing the single one followed until then, that of pastoral nomadism. Under Joshua, each tribe was assigned its territory; but in practice the conquest was largely yet to be accomplished: each group had to secure possession for itself, subduing the Canaanites who inhabited the territory or forcing them to retreat into a few centers. Not all regions, moreover, were of equal value in terms of pastureland, irrigation, and fertility: rivalries of interest arose, while certainly continuing were the typical jealousies of a fragmented regime such as that: resentments of those who believed they had contributed more to the common cause or received less; pride of the larger or stronger tribes (Ephraim) and thus contempt for the smaller ones, which reacted with advantage from particular historical memories (Benjamin).
The higher unity is constituted by the “tribe,” a unit not actually of government (among other things, it has no leader), but of an ethical nature: the patriarchal groups convened in it insofar as they preserved the memory of a common origin, and perhaps distinguished themselves by particular customs (even linguistic?) and traditions. The tribe, however, was always capable of reverting to being a unit that was also organizational and functional: these are the moments that may be called “of emergency.” The population suffered a common harm (or had a common aspiration) against an external enemy (the “oppressor”), who occupied a region, blocked a communication route, usurped the benefit of springs, grazing lands, or settled in strategic points that allowed him to carry out raids and incursions with impunity. Then the tribe gathered its forces and strove to shake off the “oppression.” In this way, it recovered or simply conquered: the work of penetration extended and perfected. Often not one but two or more tribes were jointly interested in the same action, which was carried out in common.
It was evident, in such circumstances, the need for a leader, which was sought (cf. *Judg.* 10, 18; 11, 6, 8) or accepted, offered by the circumstances, to be the defender, the “liberator” (*Judg.* 3, 9; cf. *Neh.* 9, 27) of Israel. The latter seems to be the oldest name by which such occasional commanders were designated, in substance dictators, with military and civil powers, in reference to the particular objective to be achieved. The name “judge” (from *šāphāt*, “to judge”) reflects the religious reflection on the authority of such leaders: they were in fact considered mandataries of Yahweh to settle, either through negotiations or, after refusal (cf. *Judg.* 11, 12-28), through war, the “strife” that had arisen between the people of Israel and foreigners, or rather to restore “justice” in a national-Yahwistic sense. The recognition of their authority—which in origin and exercise often shows charismatic traits—is an act of national and religious faith: being chosen by God, he was entitled to absolute power, which could take on the aspect of a veritable monarchy (cf. *Judg.* 8, 22-23 with 9, 1-6).
The duration of the period is variously calculated, depending on the system of chronology (v.) followed to fix the dates of the extreme events: the death of Joshua and the election of Saul (cf. *1 Sam.* 6, 1): the latter can be assigned to the end of the 11th century.
The biblical book that recounts the memories of this era and speaks of such judges can be divided into five parts:
1. A general introduction (1, 1–2, 5), in which are related events of the occupation of Canaan, partly probably prior to the death of Joshua, and the beginning of the “period of the judges.”
2. A special introduction (2, 6–3, 6), in which is given the historical-theocratic interpretation of the age of the judges.
3. The history of the judges (3, 7–16, 31).
4. A first appendix (chaps. 17–18) on the religious events that led to the founding of the sanctuary at Dan.
5. A second appendix (chaps. 19–21).
(per courtesy of scn. *G. Treccani*)
*Iudg.* 1-2, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19, 20, 21, 22, 23, 24, 25, 26, 27, 28, 29, 30, 31, 32, 33, 34, 35, 36, 37, 38, 39, 40, 41, 42, 43, 44, 45, 46, 47, 48, 49, 50, 51, 52, 53, 54, 55, 56, 57, 58, 59, 60, 61, 62, 63, 64, 65, 66, 67, 68, 69, 70, 71, 72, 73, 74, 75, 76, 77, 78, 79, 80, 81, 82, 83, 84, 85, 86, 87, 88, 89, 90, 91, 92, 93, 94, 95, 96, 97, 98, 99, 100, 101, 102, 103, 104, 105, 106, 107, 108, 109, 110, 111, 112, 113, 114, 115, 116, 117, 118, 119, 120, 121, 122, 123, 124, 125, 126, 127, 128, 129, 130, 131, 132, 133, 134, 135, 136, 137, 138, 139, 140, 141, 142, 143, 144, 145, 146, 147, 148, 149, 150, 151, 152, 153, 154, 155, 156, 157, 158, 159, 160, 161, 162, 163, 164, 165, 166, 167, 168, 169, 170, 171, 172, 173, 174, 175, 176, 177, 178, 179, 180, 181, 182, 183, 184, 185, 186, 187, 188, 189, 190, 191, 192, 193, 194, 195, 196, 197, 198, 199, 200, 201, 202, 203, 204, 205, 206, 207, 208, 209, 210, 211, 212, 213, 214, 215, 216, 217, 218, 219, 220, 221, 222, 223, 224, 225, 226, 227, 228, 229, 230, 231, 232, 233, 234, 235, 236, 237, 238, 239, 240, 241, 242, 243, 244, 245, 246, 247, 248, 249, 250, 251, 252, 253, 254, 255, 256, 257, 258, 259, 260, 261, 262, 263, 264, 265, 266, 267, 268, 269, 270, 271, 272, 273, 274, 275, 276, 277, 278, 279, 280, 281, 282, 283, 284, 285, 286, 287, 288, 289, 290, 291, 292, 293, 294, 295, 296, 297, 298, 299, 300, 301, 302, 303, 304, 305, 306, 307, 308, 309, 310, 311, 312, 313, 314, 315, 316, 317, 318, 319, 320, 321, 322, 323, 324, 325, 326, 327, 328, 329, 330, 331, 332, 333, 334, 335, 336, 337, 338, 339, 340, 341, 342, 343, 344, 345, 346, 347, 348, 349, 350, 351, 352, 353, 354, 355, 356, 357, 358, 359, 360, 361, 362, 363, 364, 365, 366, 367, 368, 369, 370, 371, 372, 373, 374, 375, 376, 377, 378, 379, 380, 381, 382, 383, 384, 385, 386, 387, 388, 389, 390, 391, 392, 393, 394, 395, 396, 397, 398, 399, 400, 401, 402, 403, 404, 405, 406, 407, 408, 409, 410, 411, 412, 413, 414, 415, 416, 417, 418, 419, 420, 421, 422, 423, 424, 425, 426, 427, 428, 429, 430, 431, 432, 433, 434, 435, 436, 437, 438, 439, 440, 441, 442, 443, 444, 445, 446, 447, 448, 449, 450, 451, 452, 453, 454, 455, 456, 457, 458, 459, 460, 461, 462, 463, 464, 465, 466, 467, 468, 469, 470, 471, 472, 473, 474, 475, 476, 477, 478, 479, 480, 481, 482, 483, 484, 485, 486, 487, 488, 489, 490, 491, 492, 493, 494, 495, 496, 497, 498, 499, 500, 501, 502, 503, 504, 505, 506, 507, 508, 509, 510, 511, 512, 513, 514, 515, 516, 517, 518, 519, 520, 521, 522, 523, 524, 525, 526, 527, 528, 529, 530, 531, 532, 533, 534, 535, 536, 537, 538, 539, 540, 541, 542, 543, 544, 545, 546, 547, 548, 549, 550, 551, 552, 553, 554, 555, 556, 557, 558, 559, 560, 561, 562, 563, 564, 565, 566, 567, 568, 569, 570, 571, 572, 573, 574, 575, 576, 577, 578, 579, 580, 581, 582, 583, 584, 585, 586, 587, 588, 589, 590, 591, 592, 593, 594, 595, 596, 597, 598, 599, 600, 601, 602, 603, 604, 605, 606, 607, 608, 609, 610, 611, 612, 613, 614, 615, 616, 617, 618, 619, 620, 621, 622, 623, 624, 625, 626, 627, 628, 629, 630, 631, 632, 633, 634, 635, 636, 637, 638, 639, 640, 641, 642, 643, 644, 645, 646, 647, 648, 649, 650, 651, 652, 653, 654, 655, 656, 657, 658, 659, 660, 661, 662, 663, 664, 665, 666, 667, 668, 669, 670, 671, 672, 673, 674, 675, 676, 677, 678, 679, 680, 681, 682, 683, 684, 685, 686, 687, 688, 689, 690, 691, 692, 693, 694, 695, 696, 697, 698, 699, 700, 701, 702, 703, 704, 705, 706, 707, 708, 709, 710, 711, 712, 713, 714, 715, 716, 717, 718, 719, 720, 721, 722, 723, 724, 725, 726, 727, 728, 729, 730, 731, 732, 733, 734, 735, 736, 737, 738, 739, 740, 741, 742, 743, 744, 745, 746, 747, 748, 749, 750, 751, 752, 753, 754, 755, 756, 757, 758, 759, 760, 761, 762, 763, 764, 765, 766, 767, 768, 769, 770, 771, 772
They may have been, at least in part, contemporary, engaged in different places and under different historical circumstances. None of them exercised authority over all the Israelite tribes, but only over some.
The names handed down are twelve: of these, six are merely mentioned (the so-called "minor" judges), while six are presented with accounts of their deeds at some length. Even this round number of six plus six (there are also twelve Israelite tribes) reveals the schematic character (even for aesthetic purposes) of such traditions; similarly, the fact that the duration of each judge's rule (and in part also of the "oppressions") is mostly fixed at forty years (the conventional length of a generation and a penitential number), or half of forty, or double.
The judges were as follows (the "minor" ones are indicated in parentheses):
**Othniel** (Heb. 'Othoniel'), of the family of the Kenizzites, which had been incorporated into the tribe of Judah: under him the land "had peace for forty years" (3:7–11), having been delivered from the oppression of the Aramean (or Edomite) king Chushan-rishathaim.
**Ehud** (Heb. 'Ehidh'), of the tribe of Benjamin, who established peace "for eighty years" (3:12–30); he repulsed the oppression of Eglon, king of Moab.
**Shamgar** (Heb. 'Samgar'), against the Philistines (3:31).
**Barak** (Heb. 'Barac'), of the tribe of Benjamin, with the prophetess Deborah, for forty years: against Jabin, king of Hazor, and his general Sisera, who had oppressed them for twenty years (4:1–5:32).
**Gideon** (Heb. 'Gidh'on'), of the tribe of Manasseh, forty years (chs. 6–8), against the Midianites. After his death, his son Abimelech attempted to usurp power as king (chs. 9).
**Tola** (Heb. 'Thola'), of the tribe of Issachar, twenty-three years (10:1–3).
**Jair** (Heb. 'Jair'), a Gileadite, for twenty-two years (10:4–5).
**Jephthah** (Heb. 'Iphthah'), a Gileadite, for six years (10:6–12:7), delivering Israel from the oppression of the Ammonites, which had lasted eighteen years.
**Ibzan** (Heb. 'Ibsan'), of Bethlehem, seven years (12:8–10).
**Elon** (Heb. 'Elon'), of the tribe of Zebulun, ten years (12:11–12).
**Abdon** (Heb. 'Abhdon'), of Pirathon near Shechem, eight years (12:13–15).
**Samson** (Heb. 'Sim'on'), of the tribe of Dan, twenty years: he fought against the Philistines, who had oppressed Israel for forty years (chs. 13–16).
The opening chapters of the books of Samuel recall two figures of "judges": Eli and Samuel, but in various ways they differ from their predecessors; even in the peculiarities of their authority, they foreshadow the monarchy.
For the historical-literary problems raised by modern criticism regarding the origin of the Book of Judges, see **Joshua**, Pentateuch.
The work has the character of a compilation: individual episodes may have been incorporated without alteration, as shown by the fact that some retain distinctive features (the relative pronoun *se* in the story of Gideon-Abimelech, chs. 6–9; characteristic phrases, e.g., for Samson 14:6–19; 15:4, etc.).
The compiler-author, whose name is unknown, composed his work after the age of the judges had ended and Israel was ruled by a king (cf. 17:6; 19:1; 21:25). A Jewish tradition (*Bâhâ' bâthrâ*, 15a), which names Samuel, may be supported by a certain convergence of ideas between the second introduction to the book (chs. 2:6–3:6) and Samuel’s speech at the laying down of his office (1 Sam. 12:8–20). From a historical-literary standpoint, the Book of Judges is of particular importance for preserving the beautiful and very ancient "Song of Deborah" (ch. 5).
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