JUDGES. - Designation of the leaders of Israel (Hebr. Ἰόρβες, plur. Ἰόρβεξῶ; cf. the sūfētes of the Carthaginians: Liv., 28, 27, 2; 30, 7, 5), in the period after Joshua up to Samuel, whose deeds are narrated in the biblical book entitled after them.
At the death of Joshua, for the continuation of the work so firmly begun, but far from being finished, of his settlement in the land of Canaan, Israel did not feel the need to give itself a leader.
From the time of the conquest under Joshua, the various "tribes," as they gradually occupied their seats, began to govern themselves, engaged in problems that for each one in particular created the occupation itself and the new forms of life that were replacing that single one followed until then, of pastoral nomadism. Under Joshua each tribe was assigned its territory; but in practice the conquest was for the most part still to be carried out: each group had to provide for actual possession itself, subduing the Canaanites who inhabited the territory, or forcing them to withdraw into a few centers. Not all zones then represented the same value as regards pastures, irrigation, fertility: rivalries of interest arose, while the typical jealousies of a fragmented type of regime such as that certainly continued: resentments of those who believed they had given more to the common cause or had received less; pride of the more numerous or strong tribes (Ephraim) and therefore contempt toward the smaller ones, which reacted with boasts about particular historical memories (Benjamin).
The higher unity is constituted by the "tribe," a unity not effective in government (among other things it has no leader), but of an ethical nature: the patriarchal groups come together in it insofar as they preserve the memory of a common origin, and perhaps are distinguished by particular habits (linguistic too?) and traditions. The tribe, however, is always susceptible to becoming again a unit that is also organizational and functional: these are the moments that can be called "of emergency." The population suffers a common harm (or has a common aspiration), against an external enemy (the "oppressor"), who occupies a region, blocks a communication route, usurps the benefit of springs, pasture zones, settles in strategic points, which allow him with impunity to carry out raids and incursions? Then the tribe gathers its forces and sets to work to shake off the "oppression." In this way it recovers or simply conquers: the work of penetration extends and perfects itself. Often not one alone, but two or more tribes were jointly interested in the same action, which was carried out in common.
Evident, in such conjunctures, was the need for a leader, who was sought (cf. Judg. 10, 18; 11, 6.8), or accepted, offered by circumstances, that he might be the defender, the "liberator" (Judg. 3, 9; cf. Neh. 9, 27) of Israel.
The latter seems to be the oldest name by which such occasional commanders were designated, in substance dictators, with military and civil powers, in reference to the particular objective to be achieved. The name "judge" (from Ephra, "to judge") derives from religious reflection on the authority of such leaders: they indeed were considered envoys of Yahweh to settle, either by negotiations or, after refusal (cf. Judg. 11, 12-28), by war, the "dispute" that had arisen between the people of Israel and foreigners, or rather to re-establish "justice" in a national-Yahwistic sense. The recognition of their authority — which in origin and exercise often shows charismatic traits — is an act of national and religious faith: being chosen by God, they are entitled to absolute power, which can acquire the appearance of a true and proper monarchy (cf. Judg. 8, 22-23 with 9, 1-6).
The duration of the period is variously calculated, according to the system of chronology (v.) that is followed to fix the dates of the extreme events: death of Joshua and election of Saul (cf. 1 Kings 6, 1): the end of the 11th century can be assigned to the latter.
The book of the Bible that relates the memories of this epoch and speaks of such judges can be divided into five parts:
1. A general introduction (1, 1-2, 5), in which are related events of the occupation of Canaan, in part probably prior to the death of Joshua, and the beginning of the "period of the judges" — 2. A special introduction (2, 6-3, 6), in which is given the historico-theocratic interpretation of the age of the judges — 3. The history of the judges (3, 7-16, 31). — 4. A first appendix (chaps. 17-18) on the religious events that led to the founding of the Sanctuary of Dan. — 5. A second appendix (chaps. 19-
21) on the tragic events from which the tribe of Benjamin emerged almost destroyed.
The central part (the 3rd) is called the "history" of the judges: but the expression must be understood in a wholly particular sense. The book does not present itself as a complete and orderly history, in annalistic form, but as a selection of detached facts judged to be salient, above all such as to be suited to instilling the religious-moral teaching that the author professes in the introduction (part 2) and repeats several times at the conclusion of individual episodes. If the nation turns away from God, especially in idolatry, it is punished by falling into the hands of "oppressors."
Moreover, also by reason of the special character of the "office" of the judges, their series is not presented as chronologically ordered: indeed it is possible that some of them were, at least partially, contemporaries, engaged in different places and under different historical circumstances. None of them exercised authority over all the Israelite tribes, but only over some.
The names that are handed down are 12: of these 6 are merely mentioned (the so-called "minor" judges), 6 are presented with the account of exploits at a certain length. Even this round number 6+6 (the Israelite tribes are also 12) shows the schematic character (also for aesthetic purposes) of these memories; and similarly the fact that the duration of the individual judges (and in part also of the "oppressions") is for the most part fixed at 40 years (the conventional duration of a generation and a penitential number), or half, or double 40.
The judges are the following (the "minor" ones are indicated in parentheses):
Othniel (Heb. 'Orhnī'el), of the family of the Kenizzites, which had been incorporated into the tribe of Judah: under him the country "had peace for 40 years" (3, 7-11), having been freed from the oppression of the Aramean (or Edomite) king Chushan-rishathaim.
Ehud (Heb. 'Ehūdh), of the tribe of Benjamin, who established peace "for 80 years" (3, 12-30); he repelled the oppression of Eglon, king of Moab.
(Shamgar, Heb. Samgar, against the Philistines: 3, 31).
Barak (Heb. Bārāq), of the tribe of Benjamin with the prophetess Deborah, for 40 years: against Jabin, king of Hazor and his general Sisera, oppressor for 20 years (4, 1-5, 32).
Gideon (Heb. Gidh'ōn), of the tribe of Manasseh, 40 years (chaps. 6-8), against the Midianites. After his death his son Abimelech made an attempt to usurp power as king (chap. 9).
(Tola, Heb. Tōlā' of the tribe of Issachar, 23 years: 10, 1-3).
(Jair, Heb. Jā'ir, a Gileadite, for 22 years: 10, 4-5).
Jephthah (Heb. Jiphtāh), a Gileadite, for 6 years (10, 6-12, 7), frees Israel from the oppression of the Ammonites, which lasted 18 years.
(Ibzan, Heb. 'Ibhān, of Bethlehem, 7 years: 12, 8-10).
(Elon, Heb. 'Elōn, of the) tribe of Zebulun, 10 years: 12, 11-12).
Abdon (Heb. Abhdōn, of Pirathon near Shechem, 8 years: 12, 13-15).
Samson (Heb. Šimfōn) of the tribe of Dan, 20 years: he fought against the Philistines, who exercised over Israel an oppression of 40 years (chaps. 13-16).
The first chapters of the books of Samuel recall two figures of "judges," Eli and Samuel, but in various ways they differ from their predecessors; also by the particularities of their authority they prelude to the monarchy.
For the historical-literary problems, raised by modern criticism, concerning the origin of the book of Judges, v. GIOSUÈ; PENTATEUCO.
The work has the character of a compilation: individual episodes could have been incorporated into it without revision, as is shown by the fact that some of them preserve peculiarities of their own (the relative pronoun fe-in the story of Gideon-Abimelech, chaps. 6-9; characteristic phrases, e.g. for Samson 14, 6, 19; 15, 4 etc.).
The author-compiler, unknown, made his work when the age of the judges was already over and Israel was governed by a king (cf. 17, 6; 19, 1; 21, 25); a Jewish tradition (Bābhā' bāthrā, 152), which gives the name of Samuel, may be considered supported by a certain convergence of ideas between the second introduction of the book (chaps. 2, 6-3, 6) and Samuel's speech at the deposition of his office (I Sam. 12, 8-20). From the historical-literary aspect the book of Judges is of particular importance for the preservation of the very beautiful and very ancient "Song of Deborah" (chap. 5).
Bibliography5 works
1903; V. Zapletal, Münster 1923; M. Sales, La S. Bibbia, II, Turin 1924; A. Schulz, Bonn 1926. b) Non-Catholic: K. Budde, Freiburg im Br. 1897; G. A. Moore, Edinburgh 1908; G. A. Coke, Cambridge 1913; J. Garstang, London 1931.
Giovanni Rinaldi
ICONOGRAPHY
Christian art has illustrated the scene of Samson killing the lion and catching 300 foxes (Judg. 14-15). It was represented in a 5th-century basilica in Spain, in separate scenes for which Prudentius composed the illustrative distichs (Prudentius, Dittochaeon, nos. 19-20).