Psychotechnics

PSYCHOTECHNICS. - Psychotechnics is, as it were, the synthesis of everything that, with an eye to the human factor, has been done by physicians, psychologists and sociologists to improve production quantitatively and qualitatively and to make work non-harmful, non-tiring and, as far as possible, agreeable. It may therefore be defined as: the science that grades man's psychological and physiological aptitudes, with the aim of obtaining his best utilization for the work task.

Bernardino Ramazzini, professor at the University of Padua (18th century), may be considered the founder of psychotechnics; in De morbis artificum diatribe he brought out the relations existing between work and working conditions and studied occupational risk through the compilation of the monograph of the profession. It was necessary, however, to wait for the development of large-scale industry before minds turned resolutely toward the systematic examination of the human factor of work.

To Helmholtz, W. Wundt, Mac Caell and Kraepelin belongs the merit of having established, in the second half of the last century, the experimental bases that would serve for the study of aptitudes; afterward psychotechnics made rapid progress chiefly through the work of Myers in England, Moede and Rupp in Germany, Viteles in the United States of America, Piéron, Lahy and Fontègne in France; Claparède and Walter in Switzerland; Dabie and Wautriche in Belgium; Gatti, Gemelli, Marzi, Ponzo, Banissoni, Dragotti and Boganelli in Italy.

The particular aims that psychotechnics sets out to achieve are the following: to guide in the choice of work the young person who aspires to an occupation, the adult who finds himself changing trade, the handicapped person who has partly lost his working capacity; to grade aptitudes with a view to the work utilization of whoever aspires to an occupation; to cooperate in the scientific organization of work (v. below). In this way psychotechnics constitutes the basis of vocational guidance, contributes to good work output, directs the struggle against accidents at work attributable to the human factor, and contributes to the material and spiritual elevation of the worker.

To achieve its aims psychotechnics makes use of tests and bases its deductions on the statistical method. As regards the tests, a distinction is made between analytical and analogical tests; with the former the fundamental, innate aptitudes are analyzed; with the latter what is brought out is, more than anything else, acquired capacities. They may consist of questionnaires or of apparatus.

The statistical method employed by psychotechnics is based on the compilation of the psychophysiological profiles of the trade or profession and on factorial analysis. The sample psychophysiological profiles serve as a matrix of comparison for judging whether a given subject possesses given psychophysiological requisites; the result of the examinations is compared with the data that emerge from the profile, and the subject is classified in relation to the step he reaches on the scale of values. As many profiles are needed as there are trades or professions; however, in the case of related trades or professions a single profile may serve. The compilation of the sample psychophysiological profile requires a sum of precautions and operations on which the success of the psychotechnical evaluation largely depends. One begins by ascertaining which are the typical operations of a given trade or of a given profession and which fundamental psychophysiological activities are required for the performance of the respective work task, and the tests deemed suitable for bringing out those aptitudes are selected. With the selected tests one then examines no fewer than 300 individuals of the trade or profession to which the profile to be compiled refers, and to the outcome of each examination a merit point is assigned which constitutes the raw rating. Here the statistical elaboration begins. The raw ratings are arranged in a series, test by test, and one observes whether the natural Gaussian bell curve is obtained, which argues for the selectivity of the test. The decile division of the series is then carried out, and ten values are obtained for each test, of which the first and tenth indicate respectively bad and excellent results; the 2nd-3rd and 8th-9th mediocre and good results; the 4th, 5th, 6th and 7th average results.

But this does not authorize one to regard those results as definitive; it is necessary to check whether the tests have told the truth and to grade their selective value. To this end the examined mass is divided into two subgroups, of which the first comprises the individuals who are classified by their immediate superiors as "fully satisfactory," the second the others who "have left something to be desired," technically speaking, in the performance of their duties. This done, the two masses are compared with each other and one studies in what way the two groups differ from the psychophysiological point of view. If their differentiation is notable, that is, if those rated best for output are all, or almost all, placed in the group of those who were rated psychotechnically best, and conversely all, or almost all, of those who have left something to be desired are placed in the group of the worst (psychotechnically), this means that the tests have effectively proved selective; otherwise they lack selectivity.

For this purpose the formula of the reliability index may be used: i. = frac{M₁ - M₂}{√{frac{σ₁²}{n₁} + frac{σ₂²}{n₂}}}

where i. means reliability index; M₁ and M₂ represent the means of the rating obtained by the members of the first and second subgroup; σ₁² and σ₂² are the squared deviations (variability) of the rating; n₁ and n₂ indicate the number of individuals belonging to the first and second subgroup who were examined.

Tests whose reliability index is greater than 2.99 inspire confidence, provided that its probable error multiplied by three is less than the difference of the means. The higher the figures expressing the reliability indices, the better they are. The probable error can be calculated with the formula: Ed = 66745 √{frac{σ₁}{n₁} + frac{σ₂²}{n₂}}. Now it is possible to draw conclusions regarding the requisites to be resolved: the tests that in the result of the examinations have given a reliability index that inspires confidence have told the truth; the tests with a higher reliability index offer greater confidence; tests with an unreliable reliability index must be discarded. Once the tests that are of no use have been eliminated, those that are selective remain, and their results, divided into deciles and flanked by the reliability indices, form the sample professional psychophysiological profile of the category examined.

Another method for checking the reliability of the test consists in calculating the percentages of frequency that fall in the individual deciles in the two subgroups; if the test inspires confidence, there is a clustering in the lower deciles of the subjects classified as not fully satisfactory and a clustering in the upper deciles of those classified as fully satisfactory. The graph expressing the behavior of the two subgroups is represented by two curves that cross in an X.

Having the psychophysiological profile of given trades or professions available, it is not difficult to classify a person with respect to them. In practice the assessment takes place in the following way: after examining the subject with selected tests, a score is assigned to the results of the individual examinations; one then checks to which decile the score corresponds and replaces the raw score with the weighted score of the decile. Wishing to assign a synthetic score to the psychophysiological personality of the examinee, one multiplies the decile by the number expressing the importance, that is, the weight of the test (reliability index as a function of the evaluation coefficient), one takes the sum of the products, divides the result by the sum of the weights and multiplies the whole by one hundred. Overall scores below 400-500 indicate insufficiency. The formula of the evaluation is the following:

V = frac{Σ(DP)}{DP} · 100, where V is the final score, D means decile, P means reliability index or weight, Σ means summation.

The factor analysis of human aptitudes, inaugurated by Spearman in 1904, is founded on the fact that a given activity proves to be linked, in varying degrees, to a series of other activities. Spearman held that this fact cannot be explained except on condition of admitting that each measure of each activity represents a sum of different parts (factors) independent of one another, some of which are common to several activities, while on the contrary others are strictly specific, that is, proper to a determined activity. A thorough statistical-mathematical analysis makes it possible to resolve this factor and to determine the degree of "saturation" in each kind of activity of each factor (Gemelli).

The task of p. is therefore vast and delicate and requires equipment and competence. Precisely with regard to competence there is discussion as to whether p. should be practiced by the psychologist, the engineer or the physician. It is clear that the physician-psychologist more than anyone is in a position to express a conclusive judgment on the human personality as a whole; this does not prevent him from availing himself of the cooperation of experts in the field of labor and of the social sciences.

PSYCHOTECHNICS AND VOCATIONAL GUIDANCE

The p. as the basis of vocational guidance enters the field of pedagogy and brings with it a group of questions and applications that must not be neglected.

1. Where and to whom vocational guidance should be given

It is applied first of all in favor of young people, to direct them toward manual and intellectual professions suited to their aptitudes. The most suitable place for this purpose is naturally the school.

There has been discussion as to whether vocational guidance should be carried out in elementary schools, in middle schools, in vocational training schools, etc. It is objected, for example, that the boy in elementary schools is in periods of maturation and transformation, so that he is very different from what he will become later; that in middle schools and vocational schools the student has already practically chosen his course of studies or profession. But all these objections conceive of the work of guidance in the form of an examination or a series of tests that can be carried out at a determined moment of school life. Such work, on the other hand, must begin during the course of elementary schools, continue in technical or classical schools, and develop further in university courses. While one may agree that there are periods of school life during which the possibilities of choice are greater, one cannot help noting that these remain quite broad even when the student has already chosen a Faculty within the university. The Faculties of medicine, law, letters, etc. offer very disparate fields of professional or study choice. In certain American universities, students of the medical Faculty are entrusted, in groups, to individual professors of the school who help them and guide them in their choice.

Vocational guidance is furthermore applied to adults when, for reasons of a different nature, or following illnesses or disabling accidents, they must change occupation. In these latter cases, the psychotechnical evaluation of residual aptitudes offers the possibility of restoring to productive work many individuals who would otherwise be condemned to a life of enervating idleness, and of obviating the drawback that the physically disabled are placed in tasks for which they are not suited.

Particular importance has been assumed in recent years by the vocational guidance of war cripples. It is often a matter of guiding toward qualification individuals who had never had any vocational training, of directing toward new activities those who, because of their mutilation, are not in a position to resume their old work, of steering toward new work procedures those who resume their former trade but must bring in substitutes and compensations for their diminished aptitudes.

Bacci has illustrated a particular aspect of vocational guidance in relation to the re-education of the maladjusted or those on the path to maladjustment. After recalling that the period from 13 to 21 years is the most delicate phase of individual existence, he points out that during adolescence and early youth the greatest danger is represented, besides the possible influence of a corrupt environment, by the difficulties that the individual may encounter in seeking the suitable means for the satisfaction of his needs within the framework of normal social life. Woe to the young person, who is straining toward the solution of the problems of his existence, if he does not find a right direction. It is indisputable that work is a pedagogical instrument of great importance; however, assigning to a maladjusted subject, or one on the path to maladjustment, a job without thoroughly examining whether it may be the most suitable for him means the possibility of failure with the risk of aggravating the situation. Imposed work that is not liked has no pedagogical effect, even if during the period of confinement the goal may seem to have been achieved.

Boganelli has recently pointed out another aspect of vocational guidance. He has demonstrated that in order to have fewer accidents it is not enough to be endowed with good work aptitudes, but it is also necessary to possess good anti-accident aptitudes. In vocational guidance, therefore, one must take into account individual aptitudes under both aspects.

2. Social value of vocational guidance

Having premised this, it is easy to become convinced of the social value of vocational guidance. While the individual, from being directed toward activities for which he possesses the requisite aptitudes, derives the means to improve his material and spiritual conditions (he can earn more, have fewer accidents, taste the joy of work), society derives advantage, because by improving production it increases public well-being; much money is saved that would have to be allocated for subsidies, pensions, and works for the disabled of labor; citizens satisfied with their work and their earnings live more peacefully; the standard of living of workers is raised. In vocational guidance, individual freedoms must remain safeguarded and protected (counsel and not command), also taking into account the compensations and substitutes that each person can bring into play according to circumstances.

3. Modern implementations

Édouard Claparède presented in 1922 to the League of Nations a report that contains the fundamental principles on which vocational guidance still rests today. Before him, many scholars had dealt with the problem, among them Rieger de Wurzburg (1885), Mac Cattell (1890), Binet and Simon (1902), Pearson and Shaw (1908), Arthur Nyns (1908), Mira (1909), Pizzoli (1920).

Given the recognized importance of vocational guidance, centers have arisen in all civilized nations that carry it out with excellent results; indeed, some countries have deemed it appropriate to establish legislation on the matter. In France, vocational guidance was officially born with the decree of 25 May 1938, drawn up on the basis of studies carried out by bodies of the Confédération générale du travail, of the Conseil national économique and of the Direction générale de l'enseignement technique. In Belgium it assumed an official character after the royal decree of 20 Feb. 1936, and it is significant that in this nation, as formerly in the United States of America, the necessity of vocational guidance was felt precisely in a period of economic crisis; this is the best refutation that can be given to those who consider vocational guidance inapplicable in the present times. In this nation vocational guidance extends to those who intend to follow an intellectual career. In England it is carried out at the end of the compulsory period of studies (15-16 years). As regards adults, the five laws on social security that came into force on 15 July 1948 apply. In the United States of America the vocational guidance service is connected with the adaptation of man to his work and with his possible readaptation; it is associated with provisions for placement; it is exercised uninterruptedly throughout life and extends to all citizens. About 7,000 specialized guidance counselors carry out their task in the schools, a veritable army of counselors and numerous public bodies provide for the guidance of adults. There exist guidance services for employees, ex-servicemen, war cripples, for vocational rehabilitation, etc. In New Zealand vocational guidance is compulsory in school while it is optional for adults; this is connected with the labor placement services. In the Union of Soviet Republics vocational guidance aims at obtaining the maximum and the best in production with the best adaptation of man to his work.

In Italy it is still in an embryonic state; among the initiatives, mention should be made of the University Consultancy for Vocational Guidance in Florence, founded and directed by Marzi, the Institute for the Applications of Psychology to Vocational Guidance of the Municipality of Florence, also directed by Marzi, the Center for Vocational Guidance of the Municipality of Turin, established through the efforts of Massucco Costa, the Center for Vocational Guidance of Gemelli at the Sacred Heart University of Milan, and the Centers of Applied Psychology for the Rehabilitation of Tuberculosis Patients, at the Ramazzini and Forlanini sanatoria in Rome.

Vocational guidance, in order to be truly effective, must draw its foundations not so much from theoretical conceptions as from experimental data and from professional profiles duly elaborated and tested by practical verification. By relating to these the results of psychotechnical examinations carried out on candidates for individual trades and professions, elements of judgment are obtained that serve as a guide to the counselor. Vocational guidance therefore cannot be improvised but presupposes a long series of preliminary studies requiring competence and adequate technical equipment.

Eleuterio Boganelli