PSICOTECNICA

PSYCHOTECHNICS. — Psychotechnics is the synthesis of all that physicians, psychologists, and sociologists have done, focusing on the human factor, to improve both quantitatively and qualitatively the output of work, making it less harmful, less fatiguing, and as pleasant as possible. It may therefore be defined as the science that assesses the psychological and physiological aptitudes of man, with the aim of achieving the best possible utilization of the individual in his work.

BERNARDO RAMAZZINI may be considered the founder of psychotechnics. He was a professor at the University of Padua (18th century) and in his *De morbis artificum diatriba* highlighted the relationships between work and working conditions, studying occupational hazards through detailed monographs on professions. However, it was not until the development of large-scale industries that minds turned resolutely toward the systematic examination of the human factor in labor.

The credit for establishing the experimental foundations for the study of aptitudes in the second half of the last century belongs to HELMHOLTZ, W. WUNDT, Mac CAELI, and KRAEPELIN. Subsequently, psychotechnics made rapid progress, mainly through the work of MYERS in England, MOEDE and RUPP in Germany, VITELLES in the United States, PIÉRON, LAHY, and FONTÈGNE in France, CLAPARÈDE and WALTER in Switzerland, DABLE and WAUTRICHE in Belgium, and GATTI, GEMELLI, MARZI, PONZO, BANISSONI, DRAGOTTI, and BAGNELLINI in Italy.

The specific aims of psychotechnics are as follows: to guide young people aspiring to employment, adults changing careers, and the disabled who have partially lost their working capacity in choosing their work; to assess aptitudes in relation to the work for which individuals are suited; and to cooperate in the scientific organization of labor (q.V. below). In this way, psychotechnics forms the basis of vocational guidance, contributes to efficient work performance, directs efforts to combat work-related accidents attributable to the human factor, and aids in the material and spiritual elevation of the worker.

To achieve its aims, psychotechnics employs tests and bases its conclusions on statistical methods. With regard to tests, a distinction is made between analytical and analogical tests. The former analyze fundamental innate aptitudes, while the latter primarily highlight acquired abilities. These tests may consist of questionnaires or mechanical devices.

The statistical method employed by psychotechnics is based on the compilation of psychophysiological profiles of occupations or professions and on factor analysis. Sample psychophysiological profiles serve as a benchmark for determining whether a given individual possesses the required psychophysiological qualifications. The results of examinations are compared with the data derived from the profile, and the individual is classified according to the level attained on the scale of values. As many profiles are required as there are occupations or professions; however, for closely related occupations or professions, a single profile may suffice. The compilation of a sample psychophysiological profile requires a series of measures and operations on which, to a large extent, the success of the psychotechnical evaluation depends.

The process begins by determining the typical operations of a given occupation or profession and the fundamental psychophysiological qualities required for the performance of the respective work tasks. Suitable tests are then selected to reveal these aptitudes. Next, no fewer than 300 individuals in the occupation or profession for which the profile is being compiled are examined using the selected tests. Each examination result is assigned a merit score, which constitutes the raw score. Statistical analysis then begins. The raw scores are arranged in series, test by test, and it is observed whether a natural bell curve (Gaussian distribution) is obtained, which indicates the selectivity of the test. The series is then divided into deciles, yielding ten values for each test. The first and tenth deciles represent poor and excellent results, respectively; the second and third, and the eighth and ninth, represent mediocre and good results; and the fourth, fifth, sixth, and seventh represent mediocre results.

However, this does not authorize the acceptance of the results as definitive. It is necessary to verify whether the tests have yielded truthful results and to assess their selective value. To this end, the examined group is divided into two subgroups: the first comprises individuals rated by their immediate superiors as fully satisfactory, while the second comprises those who, technically speaking, have left something to be desired in the performance of their duties. The two groups are then compared, and the manner in which they differ from a psychophysiological standpoint is studied. If the differentiation is significant—that is, if those rated highest in performance are all or nearly all found in the subgroup classified as psychotechnically superior, and conversely, if those who have left something to be desired are all or nearly all found in the subgroup classified as psychotechnically inferior—this indicates that the tests have indeed been selective. Otherwise, they lack selectivity.

The reliability index formula can be used for this purpose:

\[
I = \frac{M_1 - M_2}{\sqrt{\frac{\sigma_1^2}{n_1} + \frac{\sigma_2^2}{n_2}}}
\]

where \( I \) denotes the reliability index; \( M_1 \) and \( M_2 \) represent the mean scores of the first and second subgroups; \( \sigma_1 \) and \( \sigma_2 \) are the standard deviations (variability) of the scores; and \( n_1 \) and \( n_2 \) indicate the number of individuals in the first and second subgroups who were examined.

Tests whose reliability index exceeds 2.99 are considered reliable, provided that their probable error multiplied by three is less than the difference between the means. The higher the reliability index, the greater the confidence. The probable error can be calculated using the formula:

\[
E_p = 0.6745 \sqrt{\frac{\sigma_1^2 + \sigma_2^2}{n_1 + n_2}}.
\]

It is now possible to draw conclusions regarding the required qualifications: tests that yield a reliability index that inspires confidence have proven truthful; tests with higher reliability indices inspire greater confidence, while those with unreliable indices must be discarded. Once the useless tests have been eliminated, the remaining selective tests, whose results are divided into deciles and supplemented by reliability indices, form the sample psychophysiological occupational profile of the category examined.

Another method for verifying the reliability of a test involves calculating the percentage frequencies that fall within each decile in the two subgroups. If the test is reliable, there will be a concentration of subjects rated as not fully satisfactory in the lower deciles and a concentration of those rated as fully satisfactory in the higher deciles. The graph illustrating the behavior of the two subgroups is represented by two lines that intersect in an X shape.

Given a psychophysiological profile of certain trades or professions, it is not difficult to classify a person in relation to them. In practice, the evaluation proceeds as follows: after examining the subject with selected tests, a score is assigned to the results of the individual tests; then it is verified to which decile the score corresponds, and the raw score is replaced with the weighted score of the decile. If one wishes to assign a synthetic score to the psychophysiological personality of the examinee, the decile is multiplied by the number that expresses the importance, i.e., the weight of the test (reliability index as a coefficient of evaluation), the sum of the products is calculated, the result is divided by the sum of the weights, and the whole is multiplied by one hundred. Overall scores below 400–500 indicate insufficiency. The evaluation formula is as follows:

\[
V = \frac{\sum (DP)}{\sum P} \cdot 100, \quad \text{where } V \text{ is the final score, } D \text{ means decile, } P \text{ means reliability index or weight, } \sum \text{ means summation.}
\]

The factorial analysis of human aptitudes, inaugurated by Spearman in 1904, is based on the fact that a given activity is shown to be linked, to varying degrees, to a series of other activities. Spearman held that this fact can only be explained by admitting that each measure of each activity represents a sum of different parts (factors) independent of one another, some of which are common to several activities, while others are strictly specific, i.e., proper to a given activity. A thorough statistical-mathematical analysis makes it possible to resolve this factor and determine the degree of “saturation” in each type of activity of each factor (Gemelli).

The task of psychophysiology is therefore vast and delicate, requiring both equipment and expertise. Precisely with regard to expertise, there is debate over whether psychophysiology should be practiced by psychologists, engineers, or physicians. It is clear that the psychologist-physician is best placed to render a comprehensive judgment on the human personality as a whole; this does not, however, preclude the need for cooperation with experts in the fields of labor and social sciences.

PSYCHOPHYSIOLOGY AND VOCATIONAL GUIDANCE. — Psychophysiology as the basis of vocational guidance enters the field of pedagogy and involves a set of questions and applications that must not be neglected.

1953. Where and to whom vocational guidance should be imparted

There has been debate over whether vocational guidance should be carried out in elementary schools, in secondary schools, in vocational training schools, etc. It has been objected, for example, that the elementary school pupil is in a period of maturation and transformation, so that he is very different from what he will become later; that in secondary schools and vocational schools the student has already practically chosen his course of study or profession. But all these objections conceive of the guidance work as a form of examination or a series of tests carried out at a specific moment in school life. In reality, such work must begin during the course of elementary schooling, continue in technical or classical schools, and develop further in university courses. While it may be agreed that there are periods in school life when the possibilities of choice are greater, it cannot be denied that these possibilities remain quite broad even when the student has already chosen a faculty within the university. The faculties of medicine, law, and letters, etc., offer a wide variety of professional or academic fields. At some American universities, medical students are assigned, in groups, to individual professors who assist and guide them in their choices.

Vocational guidance is also applied to adults when, for various reasons or as a result of illness or disabling injuries, they must change occupations. In the latter cases, the psychotechnical evaluation of residual aptitudes offers the possibility of restoring to productive work many individuals who would otherwise be condemned to a life of enervating idleness, and of preventing the inconvenience of physically disabled persons being assigned to tasks for which they are unsuited.

Particular importance has been assumed in recent years by the vocational guidance of war-wounded veterans. The task often involves guiding individuals who have never received vocational training toward qualifications suited to them, directing those who, due to their injuries, are unable to resume their former work toward new activities, and guiding those who return to their previous occupations but must adopt new methods of work to compensate for diminished aptitudes.

BACCI has highlighted a particular aspect of vocational guidance in relation to the re-education of delinquent or at-risk minors. After noting that the period from ages 13 to 21 is the most delicate phase of individual existence, he emphasizes that during adolescence and early youth the greatest danger comes not only from the possible influence of a corrupt environment but also from the difficulties the individual may encounter in finding suitable means to satisfy his needs within the framework of normal social life. It would be disastrous if a young person, who is on the verge of solving the problems of his existence, were not to find the right direction. It is undeniable that work is a pedagogical instrument of great importance; yet assigning a delinquent or at-risk subject to a job without thoroughly examining whether it is suitable for him risks failure and the danger of aggravating his situation. Forced labor that is not to one’s liking has no pedagogical effect, even if during the period of custody it may seem to have achieved its purpose.

Boganelli has recently highlighted another aspect of vocational guidance. He has shown that to reduce accidents, it is not enough to possess good work aptitudes; one must also have good anti-accident aptitudes. In vocational guidance, therefore, due consideration must be given to individual aptitudes in both respects.

1954. Social value of vocational guidance

1955. Modern implementations

Given the recognized importance of vocational guidance in all civilized nations, centers have been established to implement it with excellent results; in fact, some countries have found it expedient to establish legislation on the matter. In France, vocational guidance officially began with a decree dated 25 May 1938, developed following studies conducted by bodies of the Confédération générale du travail, the Conseil national économique, and the Direction générale de l'enseignement technique. In Belgium, it took on an official character after the royal decree of 20 February 1936, and it is significant that in this nation, as at one time in the United States, the need for vocational guidance was felt precisely during a period of economic crisis; this is the best refutation of those who believe vocational guidance to be inapplicable in present times. In Belgium, vocational guidance extends to those intending to pursue an intellectual career. In England, it is carried out at the end of the compulsory period of study (ages 15–16). With regard to adults, the five laws on social security that came into force on 15 July 1948 apply. In the United States, the vocational guidance service is linked to the adaptation of the individual to his work and to any re-adaptation; it is associated with job placement provisions; it is carried out continuously throughout life and extends to all citizens. Approximately 7,000 specialized counselors perform their duties in schools, an army of advisors and numerous public bodies provide guidance for adults. There are guidance services for employees, veterans, war-wounded, vocational rehabilitation, etc. In New Zealand, vocational guidance is compulsory in schools while it is optional for adults; this is connected with labor placement services. In the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics, vocational guidance aims to achieve maximum and better production through the best possible adaptation of the individual to his work.

In Italy, it is still in an embryonic state; among the initiatives to be noted are the University Counseling Service for Vocational Guidance in Florence, founded and directed by Marzi; the Institute for the Application of Psychology to Vocational Guidance of the Municipality of Florence, also directed by Marzi; the Vocational Guidance Center of the Municipality of Turin, under the direction of Massucco Costa; the Vocational Guidance Center of Gemelli at the Università Cattolica del Sacro Cuore in Milan; and the Centers for Applied Psychology for the rehabilitation of tuberculosis patients at the Ramazzini and Forlanini sanatoria in Rome.

For vocational guidance to be truly effective, it must be based not so much on theoretical concepts as on experimental data and properly developed occupational profiles, validated by practical verification. By comparing the results of psychotechnical examinations conducted on aspirants to individual trades and professions, elements of judgment are obtained that guide the counselor. Vocational guidance cannot, therefore, be improvised but presupposes a long series of preliminary studies requiring expertise and adequate technical equipment.