PSYCHOTECHNICS. — P. is, as it were, the synthesis of all that has been done by physicians, psychologists, and sociologists, focusing on the human factor, to improve production quantitatively and qualitatively and to make work neither harmful nor arduous and, if possible, agreeable. It may therefore be defined as: the science that grades the psychological and physiological aptitudes of man, with the aim of securing his best utilization in the work task.
Bernardo Ramazzini, professor at the University of Padua (18th century), may be considered the founder of p.; in De morbis artificium diatribe he highlighted the relations between work and working conditions and studied occupational risk by compiling a monograph on the occupation. It was nevertheless necessary to await the development of large-scale industries before minds turned decisively toward the systematic examination of the human factor in work.
Helmholtz, W. Wundt, Mac Caell, and Kraepelin deserve the credit for establishing, in the second half of the last century, the experimental bases for the study of aptitudes; subsequently p. made rapid progress, principally through the work of Myers in England, Moede and Rupp in Germany, Viteless in the United States of America, Pieron, Lahy, and Fontègne in France; Claparède and
Walter in Switzerland; Dabie and Wautriche in Belgium; Gatti, Gemelli, Marzi, Ponzo, Banissoni, Dragotti, and Boganelli in Italy.
The particular aims that p. seeks to achieve are the following: to guide in the choice of work the young person seeking employment, the adult who is changing occupations, and the disabled person who has partly lost his working capacity; to grade aptitudes with a view to the occupational utilization of anyone seeking employment; and to cooperate in the scientific organization of work (v. sotto). In this way p. constitutes the basis of vocational guidance, contributes to good work performance, directs the struggle against accidents at work attributable to the human factor, and contributes to the material and spiritual advancement of the worker.
To achieve its aims, p. makes use of tests and bases its deductions on the statistical method. As regards the tests, analytical and analogical tests are distinguished; the former analyze fundamental, innate aptitudes, while the latter highlight, above all, acquired abilities. They may consist either of questionnaires or of machines.
The statistical method applied by p. is based on the compilation of psychophysiological profiles of the trade or profession and on factor analysis. Sample psychophysiological profiles serve as a matrix of comparison for judging whether a given subject possesses certain psychophysiological requirements; the result of the examinations is compared with the data arising from the profile, and the subject is classified according to the step reached on the scale of values. As many profiles as there are trades or professions are necessary; however, in the case of related trades or professions, the same profile may be used. Compiling the sample psychophysiological profile requires a combination of precautions and operations on which the success of the psychotechnical assessment largely depends. One begins by determining what the typical operations of a given trade or profession are and what fundamental psychophysiological activities are required for the performance of the respective work task, and then selects the tests considered suitable for bringing these aptitudes to light. Using the selected tests, at least 300 individuals in the trade or profession to which the profile being compiled refers are then examined, and the result of each examination is assigned a merit point constituting the raw score. Statistical processing begins at this point. The raw scores are arranged in series, test by test, and one observes whether the natural bell-shaped Gaussian curve is obtained, which indicates the selectivity of the test. The series is then divided into deciles, yielding ten values for each test, of which the first and tenth indicate poor and excellent results respectively; the 2nd–3rd and 8th–9th indicate mediocre and good results; and the 4th, 5th, 6th, and 7th indicate average results.
But this does not authorize one to regard the results themselves as definitive; it is necessary to check whether the tests have told the truth and to grade their selective value. For this purpose, the examined group is divided into two subgroups: the first comprises individuals classified by their immediate superiors as “fully satisfactory,” while the second comprises the others, who, technically speaking, “left something to be desired” in the performance of their duties. Once this has been done, the two groups are compared with each other, and the manner in which they differ from the psychophysiological point of view is studied. If their differentiation is considerable—that is, if those classified as the best in performance are all or nearly all placed in the group of those classified as psychotechnically best, and conversely, if all or nearly all those who in some way left something to be desired are placed in the group of the worst (psychotechnically)—this means that the tests have in fact proved selective; otherwise, they lack selectivity.
The following formula for the reliability index may be used for this purpose:
i. = frac{M₁ - M₂}{√{frac{σ₁²}{n₁} + frac{σ₂²}{n₂}}}
where i. means reliability index; M₁ and M₂ represent the means of the scores obtained by the members of the first and second subgroups; σ₁² and σ₂² are the squared deviations (variability) of the scores; and n₁ and n₂ indicate the number of individuals belonging to the first and second subgroups who were examined.
Confidence is placed in tests whose reliability index is higher than 2.99, provided that three times its probable error is less than the difference between the means. The better reliability indices are those expressed by higher figures. The probable error may be calculated with
the formula: Ed = 66745 √{frac{σ₁}{n₁} + frac{σ₂²}{n₂}}. It is now possible
to draw conclusions concerning the requirements to be resolved: the tests whose examination results have yielded a reliability index that inspires confidence have told the truth; greater confidence is offered by tests with a higher reliability index, while tests with an unreliable index must be discarded. Once the tests that are of no use have been eliminated, the remaining selective tests, whose results, divided into deciles and accompanied by the reliability indices, form the sample professional psychophysiological profile of the category examined.
Another method for checking the reliability of the test consists in calculating the frequency percentages falling within the individual deciles in the two subgroups; if the test inspires confidence, there is a concentration in the lower deciles of the subjects classified as not fully satisfactory and a concentration in the upper deciles of those classified as fully satisfactory. The graph expressing the behavior of the two subgroups is represented by two curves intersecting at X.
Having the psychophysiological profile of particular trades or professions, it is not difficult to classify a person in relation to them. In practice, the evaluation is carried out as follows: after examining the subject with selected tests, a score is assigned to the results of the individual examinations; it is then determined to which decile the score corresponds, and the raw score is replaced by the weighted score of the decile. In order to assign a composite score to the examinee’s psychophysiological personality, the decile is multiplied by the number expressing the importance, that is, the weight of the test (reliability index as a function of the evaluation coefficient); the products are summed, the result is divided by the sum of the weights, and the whole is multiplied by one hundred. Overall scores below 400–500 indicate inadequacy. The evaluation formula is as follows:
V = frac{Σ(DP)}{DP} · 100, where V is the final score, D means
decile, P means reliability index or weight, and Σ means summation.
The factorial analysis of human aptitudes, inaugurated by Spearman in 1904, is based on the fact that a given activity is shown to be connected, to varying degrees, with a series of other activities. Spearman held that this fact could be explained only on the assumption that each measurement of each activity represents a sum of different parts (factors) independent of one another, some of which are common to several activities, whereas others, by contrast, are strictly specific, that is, proper to a particular activity. A thorough mathematical statistical analysis makes it possible to resolve this factor and to determine the degree of “saturation” of each kind of activity by each factor (Gemelli).
The task of psychotechnics is therefore broad and delicate, and requires equipment and expertise. It is precisely with regard to expertise that it is debated whether psychotechnics should be practiced by the psychologist, the engineer, or the physician. It is clear that the physician-psychologist is more than anyone else in a position to express a conclusive judgment on the human personality as a whole; this does not prevent him from benefiting from the cooperation of experts in the field of labor and the social sciences.
BIBLI: I. M. Lahy, La sélection psychophysiologique des travailleurs, Parigi 1927; M. Fossati, Il rendimento del motore umano, Torino 1930; K. J. Holzinger - F. Swineford - H. Harman, Student manual of factor analysis, Chicago 1937; F. Bottazzi - A. Gemelli, Il fattore umano del lavoro, Milano 1940; E. G. Boring - H. S. Langfel - H. P. Weld, Foundations of psychology, Nuova York 1948; R. A. Fisher, Metodi statistici ad uso dei ricercatori, Torino 1949; C. T. Morgan, Psychologie physiologique, Parigi 1949; A. Chapin - W. R. Garner - C. T. Morgan, Applied experimental psychology, Nuova York 1949; G. Dragotti - E. Boganelli, Selezione psicofisiologica del personale di condotta dei mezzi di trazione, Roma 1949; id., Selezione psicologica dei movimenti, ivi 1949; id., Il controllo psicotecnico dei conducenti di autoceicoli per trasporti pubblici collettivi, ivi 1949; E. Boganelli, Protezione del lavoratore attraverso la p., in La tecnica professionale F. S.-Amm., 1949, nn. 7-8; id., Selezione psicofisiologica degli operai meccanici, in Ingegneria ferroviaria, 1950, nn. 7-8; id., Selezione psicotera, degli operai meccanici in rapporto alle attitudini lavorative e alla prevenzione degli infortuni, in La tecnica professionale F. S.-Amm., 1951, nn. 1-2; id., Tempi di reazione nei conducenti di automessi e prevenzione degli infortuni stradali, in Trasporti pubblici, 26 (1951), n. 6; id., Correlazione tra attitudini psicofisiologiche ed infortuni, in Ingegneria ferroviaria, 1951, n. 9; M. L. Falorni, Lo studio psicologico dell'intelligenza e della motricità, Firenze 1952; M. Cesa Bianchi - A. Perugia, Metodi statistici in psicologia, ivi 1952.
PSYCHOTECHNICS AND VOCATIONAL GUIDANCE. - Psychotechnics, as the basis of vocational guidance, enters the field of pedagogy and entails a group of questions and applications that should not be neglected.
1953. Where and to whom vocational guidance should be given
It is applied primarily for the benefit of young people, in order to direct them towards manual and intellectual professions suited to their aptitudes. The most suitable place for this purpose is naturally the school.It has been debated whether vocational guidance should be carried out in elementary schools, secondary schools, vocational training schools, etc. It is objected, for example, that the child in elementary school is in periods of maturation and transformation, and is therefore very different from what he will become later; that in secondary and vocational schools the student has already in practice chosen his course of study or profession. But all these objections conceive guidance as an examination or a series of tests to be carried out at a particular moment in school life. This work, on the contrary, must begin during elementary school, continue in technical or classical schools, and develop further in university courses. While it may be admitted that there are periods of school life during which the possibilities of choice are greater, it must nevertheless be observed that these remain quite broad even when the student has already chosen a Faculty within the university. The Faculties of medicine, law, letters, etc., offer extremely varied fields of professional or academic choice. At certain American universities, medical Faculty students are entrusted, in groups, to individual professors of the school, who assist and guide them in their choice.
Vocational guidance is also applied to adults when, for various reasons, or following disabling illnesses or accidents, they must change occupation. In the latter cases, the psychotechnical assessment of residual aptitudes makes it possible to restore many individuals to productive work who would otherwise be condemned to a life of enervating idleness, and to prevent physically impaired persons from being placed in duties for which they are unsuited.
In recent years, vocational guidance for war amputees has assumed particular importance. It often involves directing towards qualification individuals who have never received vocational instruction, guiding towards new activities those who, because of their mutilation, are unable to resume their former work, and introducing new work procedures for those who return to their previous trade but must employ substitutes and compensations for diminished aptitudes.
Bacci has illustrated a particular aspect of vocational guidance in relation to the re-education of impaired persons who have gone astray or are in danger of doing so. Having recalled that the period from thirteen to twenty-one years of age is the most delicate phase of individual existence, he points out that during adolescence and early youth the greatest danger is represented, besides the possible influence of a corrupt environment, by the difficulties the individual may encounter in seeking suitable means of satisfying his own needs within normal social life. Woe to the young person who, striving to solve the problems of his existence, does not find proper direction. It is indisputable that work is a pedagogical instrument of great importance; yet assigning a person who has gone astray, or is in danger of doing so, a job without thoroughly examining whether it may be the most suitable for him entails the possibility of failure, with the risk of aggravating the situation. Imposed work that is disliked has no pedagogical effect, even if the aim may seem to have been achieved during the period of institutional care.
Boganelli has recently pointed out another aspect of vocational guidance. He has shown that, in order to suffer fewer accidents, it is not enough to possess good work aptitudes; one must also possess good accident-prevention aptitudes. Vocational guidance must therefore take individual aptitudes into account under both aspects.
2. Social value of vocational guidance. - With these premises, it is easy to appreciate the social value of vocational guidance. While the individual, by being directed towards activities for which he possesses the requisite aptitudes, finds a means of improving his material and spiritual conditions (he may earn more, suffer fewer accidents, enjoy the joy of work), society also benefits, because improved production increases public welfare; much money is saved that would otherwise have to be allocated to subsidies, pensions, and provisions for persons disabled through work; citizens satisfied with their work and earnings live more peacefully; and the workers’ standard of living is raised. In vocational guidance, individual freedoms must remain safeguarded and protected (advice, not command), account also being taken of the compensations and substitutes that each person may employ according to circumstances.
3. Modern applications. - In 1922 Edoardo Claparède presented to the League of Nations a report containing the fundamental principles on which vocational guidance still rests today. Before him, many scholars had dealt with the problem, including Rieger de Wurzburg (1885), Mac Cattell (1890), Binet and Simon (1902), Pearson and Shaw (1908), Arthur Nyns (1908), Mira (1909), and Pizzoli (1920).
Given the recognized importance of vocational guidance, centres have arisen in all civilized nations that implement it with excellent results; indeed, some countries have deemed it advisable to establish legislation on the matter. In France, vocational guidance was officially instituted by the decree of 25 May 1938, drafted on the basis of studies carried out by bodies of the General Confederation of Labour, the National Economic Council, and the General Directorate of Technical Education. In Belgium it acquired official status after the royal decree of 20 February 1936, and it is significant that in this nation, as formerly in the United States of America, the need for vocational guidance was felt precisely during a period of economic crisis; this is the best refutation that can be given to those who consider vocational guidance inapplicable in present times. In this nation, vocational guidance extends to those intending to pursue an intellectual career. In England it is provided at the end of the compulsory period of education (fifteen to sixteen years). As regards adults, the five social security laws that came into force on 15 July 1948 apply. In the United States of America, the vocational guidance service is connected with the adaptation of the individual to his work and with his possible readaptation; it is associated with employment-placement provisions; it is carried on uninterruptedly throughout life and extends to all citizens. Approximately 7,000 specialized guidance counsellors perform their task in schools, a veritable army of advisers and numerous public bodies provide guidance for adults. There are guidance services for employees, ex-combatants, war amputees, vocational rehabilitation, etc. In New Zealand vocational guidance is compulsory in schools, while it is optional for adults; it is connected with labour-placement services. In the Union of Soviet Republics, vocational guidance aims to obtain the greatest and best production through the best adaptation of the individual to his work.
In Italy it is still in an embryonic state; among the initiatives, mention should be made of the Consultorio universitario per l'orientamento professionale in Florence, founded and directed by Marzi; the Istituto per le applicazioni della psicologia all'orientamento professionale of the Municipality of Florence, also directed by Marzi; the Centro per l'orientamento professionale of the Municipality of Turin, established through the efforts of Massucco Costa; the Centro per l'orientamento professionale of Gemelli at the University of the Sacred Heart in Milan; and the Centri di psicologia applicata per il riattamento dei tbc., at the Ramazzini and Forlanini sanatoria in Rome.
For vocational guidance to be truly effective, it must base itself not so much on theoretical conceptions as on experimental data and duly elaborated vocational profiles, tested through practical verification. By relating to these the results of psychotechnical examinations conducted on candidates for individual trades and professions, one obtains elements of judgment that guide the vocational counselor. Vocational guidance therefore cannot be improvised, but presupposes a long series of preliminary studies requiring expertise and suitable technical equipment.
BIBLI: E. Claparède, L'orientation professionnelle. Ses problèmes et ses méthodes, Ginevra 1922; M. Ponzo, Alla ricerca delle attitudini nei giovani, Torino 1929; G. Scance - M. Ponzo, Rapports sur quelques problèmes de l'orientation professionnelle en Italie. Congrès international de l'enseignement technique, Barcellona 1935; F. I. Keller - M. S. Vitelez, Vocational guidance - throughout the world, Londra 1937; A. Marzi, L'orientamento professionale dei minorati e degli apprendisti al Centro Studi del lavoro, Torino 1941; A.-M. Bouvier - R. Marcellin, Les principaux problèmes de l'orientation professionnelle, Parigi 1942; A. Courthil, Introduction à l'étude de l'orientation professionnelle, ses bases sociales psychologiques, there 1942; G. Flores d'Arcais, Il problema dell'orientamento, Padova 1944; E. P. Hunt - P. A. Smith, Scientific vocational guidance and value to the choice of employment, Birmingham 1944; A. Gemelli, L'agenzia nell'industria moderna, Milano 1945; id., L'orientamento professionale, there 1947; Atti del I Congresso nazionale di orientamento professionale - Torino 11-12 sett. 1948, Torino 1948; A. Chapanis - R. Garner Wendel - Morgan Cliffordt, Applied experimental psychology, Nuova York 1949; E. Boganelli, Selezione psicotecnica degli operai meccanici in rapporto alle attitudini lavorative e alla prevenzione dell'infortunio, in La tecnica professionale amministrativa, Ministero Trasporti, 1951, nn. 1-2; id., Valore sociale dell'orientamento professionale. - Profili di categoria. - Attitudini anti-infortunio, ibid., 1951, nn. 7-8. Eleuterio Boganelli