CARDUCCI, Giosuè. – Poet, born at Val di Castello (Pietrasanta) on 28 July 1835, died at Bologna on 16 February 1907. He spent his childhood in Versilia and his adolescence in the Tuscan Maremma, between Bolgheri and Castagneto: and he always thought of both places with yearning nostalgia.
Carducci, Giamaè – Photograph taken at Livizzano on 28 September 1904 by Casalioni of Cesena.
He studied at the schools of the Scolopi in Florence and at the Scuola Normale Superiore in Pisa. In 1856 he led the brigatella degli Amici pedanti, fighting relentlessly against degenerate Romanticism, already faithful at that time to a programme which he later (1891) formulated thus: “In politics, Italy above all; in aesthetics, classical poetry above all; in practice, sincerity and strength above all.” In the autumn of that year he was called to teach rhetoric at the gymnasium of S. Miniato al Tedesco, where he published his first volume of Rime, which earned praise from Guerrazzi and Mamiani. Having settled in Florence in 1857, he met the publisher Gaspero Barbèra, who entrusted him with the direction of the “Collezione Diamante” of Italian classics.
He had been teaching for only a few months at the lyceum in Pistoia when, in August 1860, Minister Terenzio Mamiani offered him the chair of Italian literature at the University of Bologna.
Carducci immersed himself more than ever in philological studies. His first work to bring him fame as a distinguished scholar was his edition of the vernacular works of Poliziano (1863). But he did not wrap himself entirely “in the funeral shroud of erudition.” In 1863, after reading Michelet, Proudhon, and Quinet, he wished to celebrate Progress in opposition to “Catholic obscurantism” in that Inno a Satana, which he himself later called a “guitar-strumming piece.”
Thrown into the “democratic whirlwind,” he expressed in the Giambi ed epodi the anxieties, impatience, and wrath of the so-called “party of action.” The volume Levia gravia (Pistoia 1868) passed almost unnoticed; nor did the volume of all his Poesie, published by Barbèra in 1871, meet with much success. In the following two years, Carducci composed new jambi and new poems, some of which would later be included in the collection Rime nuove, as well as some translations from Goethe, Plato, and Heine, making amends for his former contempt for foreign literatures. After the publication of Nuove poesie (Imola 1873), C. Hillebrand wrote that “Europe, after Heine’s death, had not seen a poet rise equal to Carducci.” To his Italian critics he replied with the prose work Critica e arte, which later became part of the Bozzetti critici e letterari (Livorno 1876), his first volume of militant criticism. The second edition of Nuove poesie was published in Bologna in 1875 by Nicola Zanichelli, who from then on became his publisher. The Odi barbare (1877) caused a great stir. But attention was focused more on the novelty of the metrical forms than on the novelty of the inspiration. Even here a German critic, C. Thaler, saw clearly: “... classical serenity breathes from every stanza that Carducci writes.”
Having gone to Perugia on official business in July and October of that year, captivated by the Franciscan landscape, he wrote the sonnet S. Maria degli Angeli and the Canto dell’amore, in which he indulged in a curious and Jacobin reconciliation with the papacy. More significant is the invocation to peace and the prayer to St Francis, which suddenly arose in a letter to Lidia (Perugia, 23 July 1877): cf. Lettere, XI, Bologna 1947, pp. 153-155.
From November 1878, when the visit of the new sovereigns to Bologna inspired him to write the ode Alla Regina d’Italia, Carducci gradually drew closer to the monarchy. Notable was his participation in Roman literary and journalistic life, especially his collaboration with the Cronaca bizantina (1881-1884) of A. Sommaruga, who also became his publisher for several works, beginning with the three series of Confessioni e battaglie. The Zanichelli firm, which had published the Giambi ed epodi in 1882, published the Rime nuove in 1887 and the first volume of the Opere in 1889, which Carducci was fortunate enough to be able to edit largely himself (up to volume XVI). In 1890 he was elected senator. His last poetic collection, Rime e ritmi, dates from 1899; but in prose he continued to write at least until 1904, when he published his study on Dante’s canzone Tre donne. In 1904 an illness forced Carducci to request retirement. Minister V. E. Orlando had Parliament approve a law by which the State granted Carducci (as it had already done in 1859 for Manzoni) an annual pension of 12,000 lire. A European recognition of his poetry was the Nobel Prize of 1906, but it was a “title to his tomb.” The Queen Mother, who in 1902 had purchased his library, leaving him its use, bought his modest house in 1906 as well, donating it along with the library to Bologna, which was to take possession of them, turning them into a museum, upon his death. And in front of Carducci’s house, now the Museo Carducciano, a monument by Leonardo Bistolfi was inaugurated in 1928.
In 1901 Carducci collected all his Poesie into a single volume (namely: Iuvenilia, 1850-60; Levia gravia, 1861-71; Giambi ed epodi, 1867-79; Rime nuove, 1871-87; Odi barbare, 1871-81; Rime e ritmi, 1887-95, and the Canzone di Legnano, 1876); and in 1905 he collected his chosen Prose into a single volume.
The poetry of Iuvenilia is academic: the young poet, a classicist in form but already classical in spirit, took up again the thread of the national literary tradition, which the second Romanticism had broken. The Levia gravia, although not lacking in noteworthy poems, do not seem an essential moment in Carducci’s lyrical development. In the Giambi ed epodi Carducci returns to the lyric satire exemplified by the jambi of Archilochus and the epodes of Horace, but he also has foreign models in mind (A. Barbier, V. BALL, HUGO, E. Heine). It is true that political passion often bursts forth in violent sarcasms and invectives, and that some of these jambi, more action than art, have chiefly documentary value, such as those against papal Rome and Pius IX: cf. Eduardo Corazzini; Giuseppe Monti and Giattano Tagnetti.
colta: the sonnets of Book I and the ballads and respects of Book II are a return to the fresh lyrical expressions of the first centuries of our literature; Book III, with the Hellenic *Primavere*, is a classical intermezzo in neoclassical forms, preluding the *Odi barbare*; Book IV contains masterpieces of intimate poetry, such as *Idillio maremmano* and *Davanti a San Guido*; Books V and VI, masterpieces of historical poetry, such as *Faida di comune* and *Ça ira*; Book VII, translations as beautiful as original poems, of German poets and ancient Spanish and French romances. In *Rime nuove* two aspirations prevail: the poetry of history and the poetry of strong yet gentle affections.
The same duality of inspiration is found in the three series of *Odi barbare*, even if on rare occasions C. indulges in the love of art for art’s sake and rests in “chisel-work” (whence the legend of a classical and Parnassian C.). On one hand, the heroic odes, such as the Roman ones, those of *Nemesi storica*, and those of the *Risorgimento*; on the other, intimate odes that sing of visions of Italian landscapes, of love, of family affections, of friendship, of memories, of death, and of mystery. He called them *barbare* out of a classicist’s scruple (“because thus they would sound to the ears and judgment of Greeks and Romans, though composed in the metrical forms of their lyric, and because, alas, they will sound thus to very many Italians, though composed and harmonized in Italian verse and accents”), yet they are the most classical thing in modern lyric poetry. Finally, *Rime e ritmi* reconnects, through its rhymes, to *Rime nuove* and, through its rhythms, to the *Odi barbare*. In this collection stands *La chiesa di Polenta* (1897), a historical recantation (cf. *Alle fonti del Clitunno*) on the civil and religious mission of the Church in the Middle Ages.
C. was no less a great prose writer than a poet. A bit adorned in his early writings, comparable to the classicizing poetry of the *Juvenilia*, he later knew how to combine and temper living usage with literary tradition. His autobiographical and epistolary prose calls to mind that notable part of his poetic production that may be termed “poetry of confessions.” The author of the *Giambi ed epodi* lives again in his political and literary polemics. One feels the inspiration of C.’s great civic odes in his great orations, among which that for *“La libertà perpetua di S. Marino”* (1894), in which mention is also made of the presence of God in history.
In civil historiography he left sure marks; deeper still in Italian philology, in history, and in literary criticism. There is no period, genre, or notable writer of our literature that he did not scrutinize and evaluate. C.’s criticism consists in historical-psychological reconstructions, for which he may be considered the Italian Sainte-Beuve, and in analyses—above all stylistic—of literary works that are truly incomparable.
In a letter of December 23, 1905, two years before his death, to Countess Silvia Pasolini, C. thus defined his thought on religion: “I wish to make my confessions: that is, I wish to say things that, after my death, will remove all doubt about how I thought and believed. Let us begin at the beginning: with God, or with Him who is held to be God. When scarcely more than a boy, I began a hymn to Christ thus—‘I do not know who Thou art, nor by what means / Thou hast come down here...’”—applying to Christ the verses that Dante puts in Ugolino’s mouth. When grown, I sought to express in my own words what I had hinted at in outline, especially in *La chiesa gotica*:—‘O inaccessible king of spirits, / Thy temples exclude the sun; / Thou crucified martyr, Thou dost crucify men, / Thou dost contaminate the air with sadness...,’ and in *Alle fonti del Clitunno*:—‘...a Galileo with red hair ascended the Capitol, / cast into his arms a cross, and said: / “Take it, and serve.”’—And certainly these are strong and unforgettable things. I confess that I was carried away by the Roman principle in me, burning with ardor; and it was too much. But at almost the same time I thought and wrote sweet things of Christ: ‘Ah, when from the Jordan and its fresh streams / a gentle virtue drew the multitudes...’ It remains that whenever I was led to declaim against Christ, it was out of hatred for priests; whenever I thought of Christ freely and untrammeled, it was my intimate feeling. This does not mean that I disavow what I have done: what I wrote, I wrote; and the divinity of Christ I do not admit. But certainly some expressions are too strong; and I, without adoring the divinity of Christ, bow to the Great Human Martyr. This I wish to be known, and I write it to you, because you are capable of saying it openly. Giosuè Carducci.” And postscript: “Thoughts for the vigil of Christmas, which I have always had, and hold them in account. G. C.” (A. Messeri, *Da un carteggio inedito di G. C.*, Bologna 1907).
Giulio Natali
GAREM: V. “AJN KIRIM.
CAREY, William. – Protestant missionary, b. at Paulespury in England, in the county of Northampton, in 1761, d. at Serampore in India in 1834. Of an Anglican family, at the age of 18 he became a Baptist and was ordained a pastor in 1787. The reading of Captain Cook’s voyages led him to reflect on the vast number of those who did not know Jesus Christ and decided him to consecrate himself to the conversion of the heathen.
He published a memoir: *An enquiry into the obligations of christians to use means for the conversion of the heathen* (1792). But his sect, like the others, was not then disposed to undertake such an enterprise. Nevertheless, in 1792 he formed a missionary society with some friends and offered himself as the first missionary, sailing from England on a Danish ship and arriving in Calcutta in 1793.
The greatest difficulty that hindered his enterprise was the opposition of the *East India Company*, under which all the English possessions in India lay, which did not wish the Gospel to be preached, fearing it would sow religious discord among the Indians, believing this would hinder its trade. Since he could not therefore remain in the Company’s territories as a missionary, and also in order to make a living, he accepted the oversight of an indigo factory a few miles from Calcutta, and in the meantime devoted himself to studying Indian languages, especially Bengali and Sanskrit.
In 1799 a contingent of Baptist missionaries arrived in Calcutta, among whom were Joshua Marshman and William Ward, whose names have remained inseparable from those of C. and the principles of the Indian Baptist mission. But they were forbidden to disembark. Then, together with C., who had by now been released from his employment at the indigo factory, they gathered in the small Danish colony of Serampore, very near Calcutta, where they were warmly welcomed by the Danish governor. The method of life they adopted is noteworthy, because it shows that Protestant missionaries, when they truly wish to dedicate themselves to missionary work, seek to imitate Catholic methods. They determined, in fact, to form a single community with a common fund into which everything they acquired was to be placed; they had a common table and a common house. Each was given a small sum for personal expenses, and whatever remained, after deducting common expenses, was to be devoted to the poor and to the propagation of the Gospel.
Under C.’s impetus the mission made great progress: a printing press was set up, grammars and dictionaries of the indigenous languages were printed, the New Testament was published in about ten languages and the whole Bible in Bengali and Sanskrit; the Serampore College was founded, from which missionaries set out for various parts of India, and where in 1812 Adoniram Judson, the missionary sent by the American Board (v. CONGREGATIONALISTS) to India, was hosted—though he became a Baptist and founded the mission in Burma. It was here too that C. contracted his second and third marriages, which proved happier than the first. From this centre he worked effectively to secure that the government forbid the burning of widows with their husbands’ corpses and to ensure that missionaries were free to preach in any part of the English possessions.
C. is regarded by the Baptists as the great pioneer of their missions. Protestants, moreover, who hold that making the Bible known (for them the sole rule of faith) to all men is the most important point of missionary work, esteem C. for his translations as one of the greatest missionaries.
CARIANI, Giovanni, *de’ Busi*. – Probably born in Venice to a father from Bergamo, he studied in that city, where he was living in 1509 and where he is found again in 1547. In his paintings, mixed with elements derived from Giorgione, Palma, and Lotto, there is always a faint echo of Lombard chromatic taste.
Among his best works are the *Way to Calvary* in the Ambrosiana, notable for the superimposition of new elements upon old, and the convulsive composition of its movement, and the *Madonna and Child with Saints* in the Brera Gallery in Milan. Other of his paintings are in the Carrara Academy and in private houses in Bergamo (*Madonna with Donor, Christ Carrying the Cross, and the Albani Group*); in the Academy of Venice (*Gentleman in Fur*); and in London, Berlin, and Strasbourg. A *Sacra Conversazione with the Madonna Sewing* set against a fine landscape is in the Corsiniana Library in Rome.
CARIANI (Hebr. *Girjathajim*, dual form: “two cities”). – A city northeast of the Dead Sea, in the tribe of Reuben (*Josh.* 13:19; *Num.* 32:37). In the time of the prophet Jeremiah, during the period of the decline of the kingdom of Judah, it again belonged to the Moabites (*Jer.* 48:1, 23; *Ezek.* 25:9). Eusebius (*Onomasticon*, ed. E. Klostermann, Leipzig 1904, p. 112, 15) identifies it with the Christian city of Caraitha, 10 miles west of Madaba. Today it would correspond to Khirbet al-Qerjjat.
CARIANI (Hebr. *Girjath jē ‘artim*). – A city also called *Girjath ba‘al*, a later name for ancient Ba‘alah (*Josh.* 15:9), a border city between the tribes of Ephraim and Judah. For several years it housed the ark of the covenant in the house of Abinadab, after it had been returned to the Jews by the Philistines who had taken it in the battle near Aphek (*1 Sam.* 6:21; 7:1 ff.), until David had it transported to Zion (*2 Sam.* 6:3; *1 Chron.* 13:5, etc.). The prophet Urijah, a contemporary of Jeremiah, was from C. (*Jer.* 26:20). The Jews returning from exile repopulated it (*Ezra* 2:25; *Neh.* 7:29). Eusebius (*Onomasticon*, ed. E. Klostermann, Leipzig 1904, p. 114, 23-27) identifies it with a locality 9 miles from Jerusalem, toward Lydda, corresponding to modern Abū Gōsh, formerly Qarjat el-‘Inab, 12 km. from Jerusalem along the road to Jaffa.
CARIATI, DIOCESE OF. – C. is a small town on the Ionian coast, between the mouth of the Fiume Freddo and Capo Trionto in the province of Cosenza. As a diocese it was founded in 1438 by Eugenius IV at the request of Princess Covella Ruffo Marzano. It arose united *aeque principaliter* with the ancient church of Cerenzia, whose existence is much earlier. This is attested by the *Diatiposi* of Leo VI the Philosopher (866-911) as a suffragan see of Santa Severina. Owing to its proximity to San Giovanni in Fiore, seat of the Florense archicenobium, it often appears in the diplomas of the Florense Congregation in the 12th and 13th centuries. Among its bishops are remembered the blessed Polcronio, Basilian monk, who founded the monastery of Santa Maria di Altilia, known as Calabro Maria; the blessed Bernardo, a Cistercian, contemporary of Gioacchino da Fiore; and the blessed Matteo Vitari, disciple of the same Gioacchino and his first successor in the government of the Florense Congregation. But in the 15th century it was in full decline, so that it ended by giving way to Cariati.