MONOGRAM
A monogram results from the interweaving of all the letters that generally compose a word, or only of the initials or consonants that constitute it; it is most often used for proper names. There is no constant rule for reading monograms; indeed, Nicomachus Flavianus asserted that the monogram engraved on his ring, which he used to seal his letters, was «magis intelligi quam legi promptum est» (Ep., II, 12). Its origins are remote: examples are found in Greece on coins from various cities, and in Rome during the Republic and the Empire.
### I. Archaeology
An excellent example of the monogram of the two names INCOGYPTICO (Jesus Christ) is found in the cemetery “inter duas lauros,” where a marble slab bears, in Greek, the greeting addressed to an EZOTIPEPANTIC ZHCEC EN ΘΕΩΙ Κι coiε: “O Esuperantius, may you live in God Jesus Christ” (G. Wilpert, *Beiträge zur christlichen Archäologie*, Rome 1908, p. 91). In some cases, the initial letter is larger, with the other components of the name arranged around it, as, for example, in the inscription from the Catacomb of Callistus of a MOAETOC (G. B. De Rossi, *Roma sotterranea*, II, Rome 1867, pl. 43, no. 44), in that of a KH(N)COPEINOC in the same cemetery (op. cit., pl. 43, no. 43), or in Domitilla, where De Rossi proposed reading EAAAC II KAI AEYKAΔIA (cf. *Bull. arch. crist.*, 2nd ser., 6 [1875], p. 61 and pl. 5, 1) in the monogram of a Flavilla (loc. cit., pl. 5, 2), in the catacomb of Praetextatus for the name ATAIIH (G. Wilpert, *La cripta dei Papi e la cappella di S. Cecilia*, Rome 1910, p. 38, fig. 21), in the monogram of Pope John II (533–35) on the plutei in S. Clemente in Rome (cf. G. B. De Rossi, *Scoperta di un insigne speleo mitriaco sotto l'antica basilica di S. Clemente*, in *Bull. arch. crist.*, 2nd ser., 1 [1870], pls. X–XI, no. 4). De Rossi also illustrated the monograms of the bishops Peter, Neon, and Julian found on the pulvini of capitals in the churches of S. Agata and S. Vitale in Ravenna, that of Bishop Vincent on a capital in the church of S. Giovanni Maggiore in Naples, and that of Bishop Euphrasius at Parentium (*La basilica di S. Giovanni Maggiore a Napoli e i nomi dei vescovi incisi sui capitelli nelle chiese di Italia, d'Africa e di Oriente*, in *Bull. arch. crist.*, 3rd ser., 5 [1880], pp. 160 ff.). Enrico Josi
### II. Diplomatics
In the Middle Ages, the use of monogrammed signet rings was very common; they were employed in place of autograph subscriptions. A letter by St. Avitus, c. 520, mentions them. Numerous monogrammed rings survive, belonging to ecclesiastical or lay dignitaries and private individuals, used as seals, as well as others with monograms having merely ornamental purposes, or forming the owner’s name, or an invocation.
In diplomatics, the monogram is a sign composed of a cross or a large capital letter, to which smaller letters are attached, like a ligature; it is placed at the end of the text of charters, in place of the king’s subscription. Initially, the monogram comprises the letters forming the sovereign’s name, and later also those of his titles and domains. In the charters of the Merovingians, where it appears sporadically, it replaces the monarch’s signet, especially if the latter, due to youth, cannot write; with Charlemagne, its systematic use begins. His monogram is arranged in the form of a cross, while those of other sovereigns pivot around the initial of the name.
In monograms, the actual letters are distinguished from the connecting strokes: the former, and part of the strokes, are written by the chancery official, while one or more strokes, written in a different ink, are considered the king’s autograph marks. The formulas explicitly declare the sovereign’s intervention, by which he participated in the completion of the charter, though it is uncertain whether this always occurred. Monograms with some confirmed mark of the monarch are called “signed monograms.” In the charter, the monogram is generally accompanied by a formula such as *N. gloriosissimi regis*, or similar. Under Sigismund and Frederick III, the sign appears to have been executed with a stamp; in the time of Charles IV, it fell into disuse because the sovereigns
In charters, the letters proper are distinguished from connecting strokes: the former, and part of the strokes, are written by the chancellor’s official, while one or more strokes, written in different ink, are regarded as the king’s autograph signs. The formulae explicitly declare the sovereign’s intervention, by which he thus took part in completing the diploma, though it is uncertain whether this always occurred. Charters with some authenticated sign of the monarch are called ‘signed charters’ (m. firmati). In the diploma the monogram is generally accompanied by a handwritten note such as N. gloriosissimi regis or similar. Under Sigismund and Frederick III the sign seems to have been executed with a stamp; in the time of Charles IV it fell into disuse because sovereigns began to append their own autograph subscription to diplomas. Imitating the imperial and royal diplomas, some great feudatories and certain bishops adopted monograms, now in the form of a cross, now as a ligature of letters. Later, many notaries were also inspired by monograms when devising their own tabellionato signs.
The term monogram is also applied to the sign of manuprina, or special signum, composed of the letters M, P, R, joined in a ligature; it first appears in the diplomas of Henry III (1042) and disappears with Henry V (c. 1125). Finally, a monogrammatic sign appears in papal bulls about the middle of the 11th century: Bene valete (v.) gradually contracts until it forms the well-known monogram. — See pl. LXXXIX.