SFRAGISTICS. – From the Greek σφραγίς, *sphragís*, "seal" (Lat. *sigillum*, diminutive of *signum*), sfragistics is the discipline that studies seals from juridical, historical, diplomatic, and artistic perspectives. It was raised to the status of an autonomous field in the 18th century, chiefly through the work of Heinecke and Heumann; the latter first used the term *ars spilagistica* in 1745.
For a long time, the seal was the best means of validating documents. It is mentioned in the Sacred Scriptures, as well as by Greek and Latin authors, and numerous Assyrian, Babylonian, Phoenician, Egyptian, Hellenic, Roman, and other seals are preserved in museums. Especially in the Middle Ages, the seal became the mark by which authorities authenticated their acts and often replaced handwritten signatures. Initially reserved for sovereigns, princes, great lords, and ecclesiastical hierarchies, in the 12th century it was adopted by communes, and later by corporations, colleges, institutions, and private individuals, each with varying juridical significance.
The term "seal" refers both to the engraved matrix in "negative" form and to the positive impression made in wax (metallic impressions, called *bullae*, are rare). The matrix may be a carved stone set in a ring (as are most ancient seals; *cf.* RING; MONOGRAM), or a metal die or punch engraved in bronze, steel, or, rarely, gold or silver. The impressions, i.e., the wax seals, are divided into adherent and pendant: in the first case, the wax was melted and poured directly onto the document and then pressed while hot with the die; in the second, the wax was poured and impressed upon cords, ribbons, or strips of parchment or paper hanging from the document. Pendant seals sometimes bear, impressed on the reverse, a second, usually smaller impression called a counterseal. Natural or colored wax was used. The fragility of pendant seals made protection necessary (bags of cloth or leather, cases of wood or metal). The prevailing shapes of seals are circular, ogival, and oval; rare are those shaped like shields, octagons, hexagons, etc. In a seal, one distinguishes the figure and the legend (if the latter is missing, the mark is called anepigraphic). There are portraits, sacred, profane, mythological, or allegorical figures, or views (of cities, castles, churches, mountains); designs of plants, heraldic or symbolic animals, etc. The legends usually express the name and titles of the person, office, or city; sometimes they include mottos, invocations, or leonine verses (e.g.: *Roma caput mundi – regit orbis frena rotundi*). The importance of the seal is also evident from the fact that sovereigns entrusted its custody to dignitaries of absolute trust, so that the office of chancellor became one of the highest positions. In the case of bishops, the seal was kept by the vicar general or the chancellor; in medieval communes, by the podestà, the seal notary, or another person of proven honesty. Special regulations governed the use of seals and prescribed penalties for forgery, improper use, etc.
Seals are divided, according to their juridical character, into three main categories: public, private, and ecclesiastical.
I. PUBLIC SEALS
Restricting the examination to the Middle Ages, it is noted that the diplomas of the early Carolingians were validated with impressions from Roman engraved stones, later with seals bearing the king’s bust crudely carved. In the 11th and 12th centuries, engraving improved, until Gothic art, in its flourishing development, also enriched and refined these small objects of juridical use. Sovereigns are depicted enthroned (with crowned head, hands holding scepter or orb, or sword, or fleur-de-lis) or on horseback in armor; queens are shown standing or on horseback (in hunting attire with falcon), rarely enthroned. In exceptional cases, gold *bullae* were used: for example, that of Frederick I shows the Emperor’s bust emerging from a circle of walls; on the reverse, a view of Rome (*cf.* also BULLA). Along with sovereigns, dignitaries, princes, dukes, and feudal lords also adopted seals, sometimes with a portrait (usually equestrian), sometimes with coats of arms; and gradually, offices, various authorities, and finally judges, notaries, etc., followed suit. The Italian communes, which until the mid-12th century did not consider themselves autonomous political entities and therefore had to have their civic acts validated by notaries appointed by the emperor, later began to adopt seals themselves, which became one of the signs of their independence—a status formally recognized after the Peace of Constance. City seals almost always feature allegorical figures: the knight represents the noble class that initially exercised a certain predominance in various cities; towers and walls symbolize power and especially independence; images of saints distinguish the *pars populi* and, after 1250, the popular commune; there are also Guelph and Ghibelline insignia, symbols of alliance, subjection, etc.
Sfragistics – Ecclesiastical seals: 1. of the Congregation of the monks of the Observance of St. Justina, 1st half of the 15th century (Bologna Museum); 2. of Nicola, Bishop of Bosnia, ca. 1340 (same); 3. of Stefano, Bishop of Amelia, mid-14th century (ra
and those of the diocese, the Chapter, and the abbey. To accommodate so many figures, the seal expands until it reaches its maximum dimensions in the 1500s. But alongside the solemn types, simpler models are also used, with a single figure, a symbol, or a coat of arms (sigillum mediocre, minus, secretum, ad causas, etc.). Vicars, archdeacons, archpriests, parish priests, canons, and priests (personal or dignity seals) imitate the higher clergy, as do the curiae, cathedral Chapters, rural vicariates, plebanies, churches, and finally the bodies subject to ecclesiastical jurisdiction (hospitals, refuges, pious foundations), as well as all the regular clergy.
In religious Orders, the General Curia and the Master General mostly adopt in their seals the image of the saintly founder or patron, or one of his symbols, or the coat of arms of the Order; each “province” chooses a particular saint, who is almost never the founder and sometimes does not even belong to the Order; visitors, provincials, and holders of other offices have their own seals, now with family arms, now with sacred symbols or images of saints; abbeys, priories, commanderies, convents, etc., display in their seals the patrons of their respective churches. From the 15th century onward, in both the secular and regular clergy, seals with heraldic or symbolic insignia prevail over those with figured designs.
— See pls. XXVI–XXVII.