LIBANO

LEBANON. – State proclaimed in disarray on 26 Nov. 1941 and embracing the south-western part of Syria. It takes its name from the ‘massif of the same name, which is entirely contained within II.

I. CIVIL HISTORY

As a unitary political State, Lebanon exists only since 1920. If we except, therefore, the last thirty years, its history must be understood as projecting backwards, over millennia, the limits—at least approximate—of a recent entity; we thus isolate the vicissitudes of a region which, united to the present, can scarcely be considered as such in the past.

If we examine, in fact, the geographical aspect, Lebanon can hardly be dissociated from the remainder of the mountain range that separates the Arabian desert from the Mediterranean; and this despite the rivers that cut transversely across the chain of mountains, carving themselves into the rocks and constituting minor dividing lines. Nor can we speak, from the ethnic and religious point of view, of unity in Lebanon: yet, by a singular paradox, precisely the most varied range of ethnic-religious communities attested in the region gives it a typical individuality.

The nature of the land—rugged mountains in a double chain (Lebanon and Anti-Lebanon) descending towards the coast, broken up by valleys and torrents—historically reflects two essential characteristics: the relative autonomy of the inhabitants under any government; and the progressive refuge and identification within it of minorities of every kind and origin.

If, therefore, a history of Lebanon is legitimate, its typical character demands that it unfold by making constant reference to regions more decisively individuated in historical terms, and into whose vicissitudes those of Lebanon can easily be framed: first Phoenicia (q.v.) and then Syria (q.v.). It is above all the history of the latter that must be considered as the guiding thread. Moreover, one must also follow in parallel the events of individual cities and of the ethnic-religious communities (q.V. the relevant entries), the sum of which ultimately constitutes the history of Lebanon itself.

1. Pre-industrial history. The earliest history of Lebanon is determined by the interest of the great surrounding powers in the wealth of its timber forests, progressively thinned out. Over the trade in this building material, which passed through the coastal cities of Phoenicia, the Egyptians exercised supremacy from as early as the 3rd millennium B.C., and they continued to do so until about the 13th century B.C., interrupted only by the Hyksos period (q.v.; c. 1750–1580 B.C.). The invasion of the so-called ‘Peoples of the Sea’ then ushered in a period of unstable equilibrium, during which the coastal cities enjoyed greater autonomy. Among them, Sidon stood pre-eminent until about 1000 B.C., then Tyre. In the 8th century the region was conquered by the Assyrians and subsequently passed under the Babylonians, the Persians, Alexander the Great, the Ptolemies, the Seleucids, and finally the Romans, who in 64 B.C. included it in the province of Syria. From that time, the history of Phoenicia loses all autonomy, and the vicissitudes of Lebanon are better framed within those of Syria.

2. Islamic history. The Arab conquest, begun in 634 A.D., did not immediately extend to the mountains, which remained, as in the past, in a state of partial autonomy. Later, under the Umayyad caliphate (661–750), Arab penetration intensified, though encountering strong resistance. In this rugged and easily defensible region, ethnic and religious minorities began to gather, who would remain until the present day: on the Christian side, the Maronites, the most important and numerous community, and later Melkite, Armenian, Syriac, Chaldean, and Latin groups (among Catholics); ‘Orthodox’, Armenians, Protestants, Jacobites (among non-Catholics); on the Muslim side, alongside the Sunnis, Druze, Musalji, Mutawalli; and finally small Kurdish and Jewish groups. To this multifaceted fragmentation is added the traditional division of the Arabs into northern tribes (Qaysites) and southern tribes (Yemenites), strongly felt even in this region.

The various communities organised themselves feudally under small local dynasties, which in turn depended, more formally than in fact, on the successive rulers of the land: after the dismemberment of the caliphate, the principal ones were the Fatimids, the Seljuks, the Ayyubids, the Crusaders, the Mamluks, and finally the Ottomans (from 1516). Towards these rulers, and often among different ones simultaneously, the local Lebanese leaders manoeuvred with cunning and duplicity, seeking to maintain as far as possible their de facto autonomy.

Among the aforementioned dynasties, that of the ‘Emirs of the Gharb’, belonging to the Arab tribe of Tanukh, is noteworthy; they established towards the end of the 9th century a principality around Beirut. In 1305 a revolt by Muslim sects was crushed by the Mamluks in central Lebanon; the Maronites took advantage of this to spread into that region. At the end of the 16th century, the Tanukh dynasty was succeeded by that of the Ma‘n, Druze; its most prominent representative was the famous Fakhr al-Dīn II (Fakhreddin: 1585–1635), author of the first great attempt to create an independent State in Lebanon, through a policy of broad outlook and intelligent cooperation with the States of Europe. The Ma‘n were succeeded in 1679 by the Shihāb, Sunni Muslims. Like their predecessors, they too relied on the Maronites, favouring their immigration into the south. The most important emir of the Shihāb was Bashīr II (1788–1840), who sought to unite Lebanon under his rule; the temporary Egyptian occupation (1831–40), which he favoured, proved fatal to him. With his fall, the Sublime Porte assumed direct control of Lebanon, dividing it into two so-called *mutesarrifiyya*s, one Druze and one Maronite. Internal dissensions, exacerbated by the Ottomans, culminated in the massacres of the Maronites in 1860; the European powers then intervened, and French troops landed in Lebanon. The Porte was compelled to grant the region administrative autonomy under a Christian governor approved by the European powers.

In 1914, with the outbreak of the First World War, the Ottomans unilaterally suppressed Lebanese autonomy. French and British troops, however, liberated the region in 1918.

3. The new Lebanese State

In 1920 the State of the ‘Greater Lebanon’ was constituted, including the coastal region from the mouth of the Nahr al-Kabīr to Rās al-Nāqūrah, with the cities of Tripoli, Beirut, Sidon, Tyre, and inland the mountainous zone of Lebanon and part of the Anti-Lebanon, with the intermediate plain of the Biqā‘. On this State the League of Nations officially confirmed France’s mandate in 1922. In 1926 the Constitution of the new State was promulgated: it was erected as a republic, with a President in office for three years and, after an equal interval, re-eligible; a Chamber elected by direct universal suffrage for four years; and a Senate partly elective and partly appointed by the President for six years. The rights of the Mandatory Power were explicitly provided for. This Constitution subsequently underwent many vicissitudes: it was suspended twice (1932–36 and 1939–43) and often modified, until the presidential term was extended to six years, re-eligibility was introduced, the Senate was abolished and its members—whose number was repeatedly increased—transferred to the Chamber, along with presidential appointees. From 1926 to 1933 the President was a Greek Orthodox, Charles Debbas, while the head of government was a Maronite (various individuals). Later, the presidency passed to the Maronites and the direction of the government to Sunni Muslims. This situation has lasted until the present day.

In 1936 the trend toward complete autonomy culminated in the Treaty with France, which provided for the end of the mandate within three years with Lebanon’s entry into the League of Nations (the same applied to Syria). However, the Treaty was not ratified by the French and never entered into force; moreover, in 1939 the Second World War broke out. Initially under a high commissioner of the Vichy government, in 1941 Lebanon was occupied by the forces of de Gaulle and the British; on that occasion General Catroux solemnly proclaimed Lebanon’s (and Syria’s) independence. When, however, in 1943 the Lebanese Chamber abolished the mandate rights, the French delegate-general Helleu ordered the arrest of the president and members of the government. Riots broke out throughout Lebanon; General Catroux, sent urgently, ordered the immediate release of the arrested. In 1945 two important events for Lebanon took place: its adhesion to the League of Arab States and the Anglo-French agreement for the evacuation of the Levant. Under this agreement French forces evacuated Lebanon by 31 August 1946. Effective independence had thus been achieved.

Among the more recent events to be noted are: Lebanese hostility to the project for a “Greater Syria,” which would absorb Lebanon into a larger Arab state; the re-election on 27 May 1948 of the Maronite Bisharah al-Khoury, already in office since 1943; the war against the State of Israel and the armistice signed on 13 March 1949.

II. LEGAL STATUS OF THE CHURCH

Lebanon has long been a refuge for Christians. The first to take refuge there were the Maronites (q.v.), who developed there into an important people. In the 18th century, the Catholic patriarchs of the Armenians, Melkites, and Syrians sought refuge there from persecution by their adversaries. To this day, three Catholic patriarchs reside there: the Maronite at Bkerke, the Armenian and the Syriac at Beirut, and one dissident Armenian at Antelias near Beirut.

According to the most recent statistics, the population is 1,241,598 and is distributed as follows: Christians 672,888, non-Christians 568,710. Among the Christians, the vast majority are Catholics, numbering 445,379, of whom 355,182 are Maronites, 65,860 Melkites, 13,310 Armenians, 6,420 Syriacs (and a few Chaldeans), and 4,607 Latins. Among the non-Catholics, the largest community is that of the “Orthodox,” numbering 133,130; followed by Armenians with 59,120, Protestants with 25,954, and Jacobites or Monophysite Syriacs with 9,305. All non-Catholic Christians number 227,509. Muslims number 555,827, of whom 252,240 are Sunnis, 224,388 Shiites, and 79,219 Druze. There are also 6,677 Jews and 6,226 of other religions.

As can be seen, Lebanon is a tangle of various religious communities, and the great difficulty is to form from all of them a single people—a difficulty all the more serious because these communities are not merely different confessions but also social groups with different pasts and many historical conflicts. The most serious is the antithesis between Christians and Muslims, which is not only religious but also social, since Muslims are the descendants of former conquerors and Christians those of the vanquished. Christians and Muslims did fight together for independence, yet mutual distrust has not entirely disappeared (see also BEIRUT; MARONITES).