MISHNAH. - Collection of rabbinic treatises from the 1st-3rd centuries AD, which constitute the "oral" law, that is, the deductions drawn from the Pentateuch, originally transmitted orally. M. means "teaching," from žanāh ("to repeat, teach, learn"). Rabbi Jēhādhāh han-Nāsī undertook the redaction of this corpus iuris; but the collection of the mishnaic material goes back to the times of Hillel (v.) and Shammai (v.), and its systematization was begun by R. 'Aqibā' (v.). The work of redacting the corpus was determined by divergences of opinion, by the concern that the Tōrāh might become like "two Tōrōth." R. Jēhādhāh presents not only the opinions he approved but also the opposing ones, so as to render the other collections superfluous. Texts contained in another collection, called Tōsephtā' (v.), also came to form part of the M. The text of the M. underwent slight variants as a result of the discussions around its content, gathered in the gēmāra (v.).
The language in which the M. is redacted is post-biblical Neo-Hebrew and contains, alongside numerous Aramaisms, many words of Greek and Latin origin.
The M. consists of 6 "orders" (sēdher; 'ērekh is rarely used); šīšāh sēdharīm (abbreviation šas). Each sēdher consists of a given number of "treatises" (massēkhetth, plur. massēkhtōth). The treatises are divided into chapters (pēreq, plur. pērāqīm), and the chapters are divided into legal norms made the object of teaching (mišnāh, plur. mišnājōth, called in the Palestinian Talmud halākhōth "norms for practice"). The number of treatises is currently 63. The doctors mentioned in the M. are called tannaim (v.).
The 1st order, Zērā'īm, "seeds," deals with agriculture, but also with various offerings and sacrifices. It contains the following treatises: a) Bērākhōth (v.) "blessings," "thanksgivings," in 9 chapters: it is found in an ancient manuscript at the end of the 2nd order, and was placed here in order to begin with blessing and praise to the Lord. It prescribes the recitation of the blessings: Šēma (v.), the eighteen blessings, blessings over food, after meals, at the close of the Sabbath, on the occasion of natural phenomena, of extraordinary events. b) Pē'āh ("edge" of the field): deals (with reference to Lev. 19:9; 23:22; Deut. 24:19 and following) with the owner's obligation to leave the edges of the field free at harvest time for the poor and the stranger, so that they may glean there, and the forgotten sheaves. It deals with whatever else belongs to the poor. It contains 8 chapters. The treatise Pē'āh is followed by the gēmāra only in the Palestinian Talmud. c) Dēmaj: field produce in regard to which there exists, since the owner offers no guarantee as regards knowledge of the Law, the doubt whether the tithes and the offerings for the priests and Levites have been set aside. It therefore falls to the buyer to fulfill these obligations. If the owner is a worthy person, such obligations do not exist. It contains 7 chapters. In the Babylonian Talmud the treatise has no gēmārā'. d) Kil'ajim: indicates (with reference to Lev. 19:19 and Deut. 22:9 and following) the prohibition of mixing in sowing, of animals, and of wool and linen in clothing. It is in 9 chapters. Palestinian Gēmārā'. e) Šebhī'ith ("seventh year"): deals with the duty of resting the land and the remission of debts during the seventh ("sabbatical") year. It is in 10 chapters. It regulates buying and selling during the seventh year, the use of the spontaneous produce of the field, the remission of debts and the prozbūl). Palestinian Gēmārā'. f) Tērāmōth ("offerings"): deals (cf. Num. 18:2 and following) with the offerings due to the priest, with who is not fit to perform this duty, with which products are exempt from it. In 11 chapters. Gēmārā' only Palestinian. g) Ma'airōth: "tithes" due (Num. 18:21 and following) to the Levites. In 7 chapters. It is also called Ma'āšer ri'šōn ("first tithe"). h) Ma'āšer šēnī ("second tithe"): deals (cf. Deut. 14:22 and following) with the tithe that the owner consumes in kind or in the form of money in Jerusalem on the occasion of the pilgrimage festivals. In 5 chapters. i) Hallāh ("bread," offering to the priest of the dough from which the bread is about to be baked: Num. 5:18-21): establishes which kinds of grain are subject to the offering, of which the woman of the house owes 1/24, the baker 1/48. In 4 chapters. Palestinian Gēmārā'. l) Orlāh, the produce of a tree in its first 3 years: "uncircumcised" (Lev. 19:23), its use remains forbidden. In 3 chapters. Palestinian Gēmārā'. m) Bikhārīm ("first-fruits": Ex. 23:19; 34:26; Deut. 18:4; 26:1 and following). In 3 chapters it establishes who may make the offering and recite the praise to the Lord, the period of the offering, the difference between this and the other offerings. Chapter 4 is missing in certain editions and is an extract from the Tōsephtā'; it concerns the differences between man and woman with regard to bikhārīm. Palestinian Gēmārā'.
The 2nd order (Mō'ēdh "festivals") deals with the festivities of the religious year. It contains the following treatises: a) Šabāth ("Sabbath"): in 24 chapters it deals with the forbidden works, from carrying objects and traveling to tying knots; 39 are the principal forbidden works; the treatise considers, besides kindling fire and circumcision, the works done by a non-Jew, works necessary for saving life, for a dead person. Babylonian Gēmārā'; Palestinian up to chapter 20. b) Ērābhin ("mixtures"): an ideal merging of private enclosures with public ones in order to be able, on the festival day, to go beyond the private enclosure without violating the law of rest. In 10 chapters it establishes the applications of 'ērābhin: accommodations for encamped soldiers, a well placed in a public enclosure, roofs, carrying into the house of a child born in the open countryside on the Sabbath, works permitted on the Sabbath in the temple. Little Palestinian gēmārā'; the Babylonian is copious. c) Pēshīm, "paschal festival": in 10 chapters it establishes the clearing out of leavened matter, the grain for the unleavened bread, whether the 14th of nīsān falls on the Sabbath, the paschal sacrifice, the roasting of the lamb, the companies that were formed for the consumption of the lamb, the "second" Passover (Num. 9:10 and following), the banquet of the first festive evening. Copious Babylonian and Palestinian gēmārā'. d) Šēqālim ("shekels"): deals with the half-shekel tax (Ex. 30:12 and following) for the maintenance of the cult. In 8 chapters it regulates the time of the proclamation for the payment and who has the duty to contribute, the exchange of coins and the use of surplus money, the case of one who has consecrated his possessions, the offices in the sanctuary, the 13 tables and the 13 gateways where the prostrations were performed, the sacrifices, the tent of the Temple. e) Jōmā' "the day" ("of atonement"): abbreviation of jōmā' ṣabā' ("great day"), commonly called jōm hak-kippūrīm. It deals in 8 chapters with the preparations of the high priest for the function, the drawing of lots for the assignment of the individual priestly functions, the drawing of lots for the goats, the purification of the golden altar, the confession and 'Āzā', the reading of the passage from the Tōrah and the atonement. f) Sukkāh "booth": deals in 5 chapters with the feast of tabernacles (v.), that is, the construction of and dwelling in the sukkāh, the festive bundle (Lev. 23:40), the festive ceremonies, the pouring of the water, the sound of the flutes, the the sound of the horn, the sacrifices offered. g) Bējāh ("egg"), a treatise so named after its first subject: in the Palestinian Talmud (v.) it is called jōm jōbh "good day" (festival); in 5 chapters it deals with the works that may be performed on a festival day, when it is preceded by a festival or sabbath day. h) Rō'ī haš-šāmāh "new year": in 4 chapters it deals with the various "new years" within each year in which the Lord judges the world, with the determination and attestation of the new moons, the blessing of the new moon, the sounding of the horn and the liturgy of the new year. i) Ta'ānīth "fast": in 4 chapters it deals with penitential or propitiatory observances, namely the prayer and ceremonies "ad petendam pluviam", occasional public fasts and those of a historico-national character (17 of the month of tammaz, 9 'ābh), the offerings of wood for the Temple. l) Mēghillāh ("scroll" containing the book of Esther): in 4 chapters it deals with the precepts concerning the reading of the scroll, the sale of synagogues and sacred furnishings, the ten persons participating in order to determine the public character of a religious service, precepts concerning the reading of the Tōrah and the Prophets, the translation of Holy Scripture. m) Mō'ēdh qājān ("minor festivals"): on the semi-festive days inserted between the first and last day of Passover and of the Feast of Tabernacles, Pūrīm (v.) and enceme: permitted works, funeral ceremonies (3 chapters). n) Haghighāh: festal "sacrifice", offered alongside those of obligation on the occasion of the pilgrimage festivals. In 3 chapters it deals with: who has the duty of making the festal pilgrimage to Jerusalem; the prohibition of devoting oneself to gnosis; the imposition of hands on the head of the animal to be offered, the ritual washing of the hands.
The 3rd order (Nāsīm "women") deals predominantly with matrimonial and family law and with the precepts concerning vows made by women which the husband has the power to annul. It contains the following treatises: a) Jēbhāmōth ("sisters-in-law"): on the levirate (v.), in 16 chapters. b) Kēthubōth "writings": marriage contracts. In 13 chapters it deals with the days of nuptial celebration, with seduction and violation, with questions of property in cases of monogamy and polygamy. c) Nēdhārīm, "vows" (Num. 30): in 11 chapters it deals with the formulation of the vow; vows of abstinence of various kinds; the dissolution of vows. d) Nāzīr "Nazirite" (Num. 6): duration, value, prohibitions, purity and impurity, decisions concerning the Nazirite vow; the Nazirite vow of women and of slaves (9 chapters). e) Sōtāh ("woman led astray"): a woman suspected of adultery (Num. 5, 11 ff.); it also deals with the heifer to be killed in the case of homicide by unknown persons (Deut. 21, 1-9); the signs foretelling the coming of the Messiah; various degrees of holiness and of piety (9 chapters). f) Gīrīn ("divorces", plural of gērī): documents for divorcing one's wife (or for freeing a slave). In 11 chapters it deals with the precepts concerning the writing and the delivery of the document that annuls the marriage. g) Qiddāsin ("consecration", that is, the celebration of marriage): the act of coemptio by means of an object of value (minimal, symbolic), by means of an agent, by proxy; which of the 10 classes of families returned from the Babylonian exile may contract marriage among themselves.
The 4th order (Nēzīqīn "damages") deals with civil and criminal law. In the Palestinian Talmud it is called, euphemistically, Jēšū'ōth "salvation". This order contains the following treatises of civil and criminal law. a-c) (originally perhaps united): Bābhā' qammā', "first gate" (7 chapters); Bābhā' mēzī'ā', "middle gate" (8 chapters); Bābhā' bāthrā', "last gate" (10 chapters): they are of an introductory character. d) Sanhedhārīn, "sanhedrin". In 11 chapters it explains: the college of 3 judges, the small sanhedrin of 23 and the great one of 71 members, the election of arbitral judges, the witnesses, the death penalty, who remains excluded from participation in the life to come, the false prophet, the privileges of the high priest and of the king. e) Makhāth, "stripes" (Deut. 25, 1 ff.): in 3 chapters it deals with false witnesses, the involuntary homicide and the cities of refuge, of 59 actions punishable with stripes. f) Šēbhū'ōth, "oaths" (8 chapters): expiation of sins of Levitical sacrilege; various kinds of oaths; objects in custody. g) Ēdhujōth, "testimonies" (on 100 principal questions issued by ancient authorities). h) 'Ābhādhāh zārāh, "strange worship": the obligation to separate oneself from pagans and from pagan worship (of Roman origin); limitations in the buying and selling of animals and of ornaments, of buildings, of palaces; images and wine, pagan worship in general. h) 'Abhōth, "fathers": sentences of ancient rabbis. 10. Hōrāfōth, "teachings", "decisions": in 3 chapters it deals with error in a judicial sentence, the limits of responsibility of the court and of the judged, genealogical values: priests, Levites, ordinary Israelite, proselyte, etc. A learned bastard is worth more than an ignorant high priest.
The 5th order (Qudhālim "holiness, sacrificial worship") deals with sacrifices, with what concerns ritual slaughtering, and with other dietary precepts. It contains the treatises: a) Zēbhōhim ("sacrifices"), in 14 chapters: the intentions with which the sacrifice is offered; what renders it unfit; the sprinkling of the blood; which priests are excluded from consuming the sacrificial meats. b) Mēnāfōth "meal-offerings" (Lev. 2, 2), in 13 chapters: the first-fruits, the 2 loaves of Pentecost offered as first-fruits, the loaves of display on the sacred table; the libations. c) Hullin "things" (profane, not sacred): in 11 chapters it deals with the slaughtering of non-sacrificial animals, the precepts concerning slaughtering, the dietary precepts, the prohibitions against slaughtering sick animals or animals destined for pagan worship, the precept of Lev. 22, 28 and of Ex. 23, 19; 34, 26; Deut. 14, 21 and Deut. 22, 6. d) Bēkhōrōth "first-born", in 9 chapters: it concerns the precepts of Ex. 13, 2.12 f.; 34, 19 f.; Lev. 27, 26 f.; Num. 8, 16 f.; 18, 15 f. and Deut. 15, 19 f. e) 'Arākhīn "valuations": concerning vows (Lev. 25, 25 f.; 17, 2-20) and the persons who make the vows. f) Tēmūrāth "exchange", 7 chapters: substitution in the offering of animals (Lev. 27, 10). g) Kērīthōth "cutting off": premature natural death, of which the Tōrah often speaks, which transgressions are punished in this way, sacrificial precepts (6 chapters). h) Mē'īlōh: "sacrifice" of trespass (Lev. 5, 15; Num. 5, 6 f.), in 6 chapters. i) Tāmīlōh ("perpetual" or "daily" sacrifice: Ex. 29, 38 f.; Num. 28, 3 f.). the watches of the priests, the ritual ablutions, the sacrificial fire, the morning prayer, the incense, the psalms that the priests sang on the individual days of the week (7 chapters). l) Middāth "measurements" (of the Temple mount; walls and courts): the hall of the sanhedrin (5 chapters). m) Qinnim "nests" of birds: the offering of two doves in Lev. 12, 8; furthermore: Lev. 15, 14 f.; 5, 7; 14, 22 (chapters).
The 6th order (Tēhārōth "purity") deals with Levitical purity and impurity. It contains the treatises: a) Kēlim "vessels" (of the most varied kinds): their Levitical impurity (Lev. 6, 20 f.; 11, 32 f.; Num. 19, 14 f.; 31, 20 f.); the 10 degrees of impurity that start from man and the 10 degrees of holiness that go from the Holy Land to the sanctum sanctorum of the Temple (30 chapters). b) 'Chidāth "tents": the spreading of the impurity that emanates from a human corpse (Num. 19, 14 f.), in 18 chapters. c) Nēghā'im "plagues", leprosy (Lev. 13 and 14), in 14 chapters. d) Pārāh "cow" (red: Num. 19): it deals with homicide by unknown hand (Deut. 21), and with the water of sprinkling, in 12 chapters. e) Tēhārōth "purity": a euphemism for "impurity" of a lower degree. f) Mīgwā'ōth "baths" (ritual) by immersion, in 10 chapters. g) Niddāh "menstruating woman" (and woman in childbirth; Lev. 12; 15, 19 f.; 18, 19; 20, 18), in 10 chapters. h) Makhārīn or Maigīn, liquids by which foods can become ritually impure (Lev. 11:34, 37 f.). i) Zābhīm "those afflicted with gonorrhea" (Lev. 15), in 15 chapters. l) Tēbhūl jōm "the one immersed on the day," that is, the state of impurity of one who has performed the purification bath and is awaiting sunset to be pure (Lev. 15 and 22:6 f.); contact on the part of the tēbhūl jōm renders certain foods and certain offerings "unfit," pāsūl (4 chapters). m) Jādhajīm "hands": ritual impurity and purification of the hands; intangibility of the Sacred Writings; quantity of water and manner of pouring it to effect purification (4 chapters). n) 'Og-
sin "stalks": cases of impurity of stalks, buds and leaves of plants (3 chapters).
Bibliography4 works
M. is also translated in the version of the entire Babylonian Talmud by L. Goldschmidt.
Eugenio Zolli