RUPERT OF DEUTZ (Rupertus Tuitiensis). - Benedictine theologian and abbot, born in Liège ca. 1075, died in Deutz in 1130. A monk at St Lawrence’s in Liège, he was ordained priest in 1110 and in 1115 moved to the monastery of St Michael in Siegburg (Cologne). Elected abbot of St Heribert’s in Deutz (1120), he suffered the pain of witnessing the burning of his monastery (1128).
A writer of remarkable fecundity, he chiefly addressed exegetical and theological themes. After some early essays (invitations and a chronicle of St Lawrence’s in Liège), in 1111 he composed his first major work, *De divinis officiis* (PL 170, 11-332), a strongly symbolic explanation of the Divine Office (Bk. I), the Mass (Bk. II) and the liturgical year (Bks. III-XII). The *De voluntate Dei* (ibid. 437-54) and the *De omnipotenti* (ibid. 453-78) relate to his
The tradition is recounted in the Edda. The god Odin is said to have gained knowledge of the r. and thus obtained dominion over all nature by drinking a potion into which, together with honey and the blood of the wise Kvasir, had been mixed the powder scraped from the runes inscribed on all natural objects.
The likeliest hypothesis regarding the graphic origin of the r. (excluding the Greek route via the Goths and the Latin one) is that these signs reached northern Europe with the alphabetic script used among the north-eastern peoples settled around the great lakes of northern Italy, whence they could have spread to the Rhine basin (Marstrander).
RUPERT (Hruobert, Ruprecht), saint. - First bishop of Salzburg, d. 27 March 718 (?). A monk of Irish or Scottish origin, if not by birth then at least in education and spiritual conversion, he was summoned, in the early years of Childeric III, king of the Franks (691-711), to Ratisbon by Duke Theodo of Bavaria for the conversion of his people. R. was bishop at Worms, or at least a chorepiscopus.
R. established the first episcopal see on the shores of Wallersee, building a church in honour of St Peter, patron of the cathedral of Worms (modern Seekirchen, Upper Austria); but soon received from Theodo a more suitable site on the Salzach, amid the ruins of ancient Iuvavum (now Salzburg). R. energetically devoted himself to the conversion and civilisation of the vast subalpine and Alpine regions (as far as the Tauern and the Enns), making the abbey of St Peter (Sankt Peter in Salzburg) and that of nuns, dedicated to St Mary (Nonnberg) and headed by his niece St Erentrude, centres of spiritual outreach.
The saint’s figure and work lived on in the veneration of the people; one of his early successors, St Virgil, translated R.’s relics to the new cathedral (24 Sept. 774), which, according to the practice of the time, amounted to a true canonisation. R. is patron of the city, diocese and province of Salzburg, greatly venerated also in Bavaria, patron of the salt mines, the wealth of
RUPERT OF DEUTZ (Rupertus Tuitiensis). - Benedictine theologian and abbot, born in Liège ca. 1075, died in Deutz in 1130. A monk at St Lawrence’s in Liège, he was ordained priest in 1110 and in 1115 moved to the monastery of St Michael in Siegburg (Cologne). Elected abbot of St Heribert’s in Deutz (1120), he suffered the pain of witnessing the burning of his monastery (1128).
A writer of remarkable fecundity, he chiefly addressed exegetical and theological themes. After some early essays (invitations and a chronicle of St Lawrence’s in Liège), in 1111 he composed his first major work, *De divinis officiis* (PL 170, 11-332), a strongly symbolic explanation of the Divine Office (Bk. I), the Mass (Bk. II) and the liturgical year (Bks. III-XII). The *De voluntate Dei* (ibid. 437-54) and the *De omnipotenti* (ibid. 453-78) relate to his
Ligiliga, parasite, in contrast, however:
You commit all servants of men there to your
aerial greatness, and in it
I call, headstrong, but in truth a youth, where
while, where laurels, in return, equal,
so that, because, and, of, praise, and, kingdom, and,
reduce costs in the face of international market competition. Hence those methods of processing in which labour is less employed. This in turn gives rise to unemployment problems, especially among the labouring masses, and a distrust of large industrial enterprises, tending instead toward a self-sufficient agriculture, i.e. toward small owner-operated holdings.
In countries with dense populations, such as Italy, q. r. can be summed up in a serious dilemma: on the one hand there is the need to industrialise agriculture, aiming for low production costs, extensive use of machinery, mass production for national and foreign markets and to supply urban populations and, more generally, non-agricultural classes; on the other hand there is the need to keep as large a rural population as possible settled on the land, living an independent life producing various goods, not high in absolute terms but sufficient to provide the family with a kind of subsistence income in kind. The first solution involves less use of unskilled labour in relative terms, but supplies the mass of goods needed for national life and allows production to be organised on the basis of collecting, storing, processing and preparing products for distribution on domestic and foreign markets. The second makes it possible to achieve food self-sufficiency for individual families and, more generally, for rural classes alone, but rarely allows for the production of goods available on the market.
Faced with this dilemma, many governments – such as Italy’s – have preferred the second solution, at least in large parts of the country, and this has led to the need for new land arrangements, manifested through land redistribution, agrarian reforms and changes in tenancy agreements, etc. Yet even to achieve such arrangements enormous capital investments are required, since it is obvious that the mass of land equipment increases to an extremely considerable extent in the case of the creation of smallholdings. On the other hand, since it is difficult to achieve a perfect balance between large, medium and small properties, as would be desirable and technically rational, public authorities may justifiably intervene in this field and in this direction, provided that demagogic influences are avoided as far as possible.
In some other territories, by contrast, the slow evolution of agricultural enterprise has yielded and continues to yield very modest incomes from II. In general, these areas are marked by extreme poverty among rural populations, for whether they manage their own agricultural enterprise or secure their livelihood by providing services to capitalist landowners, the narrowness of rent in the Ricardian sense allows for remuneration of labor that is entirely insufficient even for a modest standard of living. On the other hand, land ownership concentrated in the hands of a few effectively creates a monopoly regime with the inevitable consequences of such a regime, while, moreover, the scarcity of income from agricultural enterprise minimizes the capital that would be necessary for the advancement of agriculture. Thus, in both cases—that of the direct cultivator and that of the sharecropper or wage laborer—low remuneration corresponds to an extremely low standard of living.
These unfavorable conditions are therefore altered only in countries where either modest demographic pressure and particular agronomic conditions have permitted rapid evolution in agriculture, or a substantial mass of capital invested in land has enabled the emergence and strengthening of small peasant enterprises, which, through rational development and the spread of cooperative, consortium-based, and producer, processor, and distributor forms, have achieved economic and social equilibrium even in relation to non-rural classes. In other words, where there has been such an interpenetration of agriculture and industry as to stabilize the relationship between production and consumption.
Thus, as is evident, the agrarian question stems from the poor distribution of people across the globe and within various zones, as well as from the twofold relationship between available land and rural population and between capital and labor. And since the determination of these relationships also depends on human intervention, they are subject to modification according to the nature of the goals that humanity seeks to achieve.