PHILIPPIANS, EPISTLE TO THE.
One of the four captivity epistles, addressed by St. Paul to the community at Philippi.
Summary: I. Character, — II. Analysis and Content, — III. Occasion, — IV. Pauline Authenticity and Unity.
I. Character
The Epistle to the Philippians presents a character that is difficult to classify in relation to the other Pauline letters, including those of the group in which it is commonly placed, from which it differs in content and tone, if not in place and circumstances of composition. Apart from the very brief Epistle to Philemon (q.v.), which, by its destination and subject matter, is entirely personal in character, Philippians is the most intimate of the Pauline letters: a letter more than any other. It is marked by the most cordial confidence, free from every concern: Paul is well aware that he is understood, that there is no danger among his correspondents of those misunderstandings which, for example, the contentious factionalism of the Corinthians might have provoked. He therefore opens his heart with the simplicity and assurance of a father, and makes the devotion of his readers felt, indirectly but clearly. Some polemical passages do not touch the recipients themselves, but rather the declared enemies of Paul’s preaching, the Judaizers (3:2–11), who seem to be outside the community, or those members of the community who have so fallen short of their calling that they may be called “enemies of the cross of Christ” (3:18–19; cf. J. H. Michael, pp. 132–39; 171 sq.; W. Michaelis, pp. 52–59; 61 sq.). The letter well reflects the constant relations between Paul and the Church of Philippi, the most faithful of those he founded, the only one in which erroneous doctrines and notable divisions had not taken root. Yet the Apostle does not fail to warn against every danger of doctrinal deviation, of cooling in religious fervor, and against symptoms of petty internal discord (cf. 4:2).The Epistle to the Philippians is not fundamentally a doctrinal writing, comparable to the weighty treatises of the Epistles to the Romans and Galatians or to 1 Corinthians. Nevertheless, there are dogmatic insights of considerable importance, foremost among them the celebrated Christological passage of 2:6–11. Christian life and morality, mystical union with Christ, and progress toward perfection occupy a notable place, but outside any prearranged schema. This letter of joy, which recalls more than any other the Gospel of St. Luke, is all the more significant as a Christian vision of life in that it comes from a prisoner addressing believers who have suffered and continue to suffer for the cause of Christ. On St. Luke’s stay at Philippi, see PHILIPPI.
II. Analysis and Content
The character of the writing explains why it can be divided according to the usual scheme of doctrinal and practical sections. Alongside news about the Apostle’s present circumstances, exhortations to a more fervent Christian life appear from the beginning, supported by dogmatic considerations. The thoughts flow freely, sometimes connected by the thinnest thread, yet with great naturalness, apart from a few rather abrupt and unexpected transitions (3:1 sq.).The opening (1:1–11) is less solemn than those of the Epistle to the Romans and of 1 and 2 Corinthians; it is closer to those of 1 and 2 Thessalonians, also in the absence of the title “apostle.” Here Paul describes himself, with Timothy, as “a servant of Jesus Christ.”
After the customary address to “all the saints,” with particular mention of the household of Stephanas, and the wish of grace and peace (1:1–2), the Apostle gives thanks and expresses his joy for the divine gifts so abundantly bestowed upon this community, of which he is proud. He holds all these beloved children in his heart, even as a prisoner, and while he strives for the defense and propagation of the Gospel (1:3–8), his prayer implores an increase of charity in the faithful, that they may know and practice what is best, being pure and irreproachable in preparation for the day of Christ (1:9–11).
The Apostle’s imprisonment has also turned to the profit of the Gospel: besides the spread of Christianity among the guard soldiers, it has stirred in many brothers a greater zeal in preaching. Some act from unworthy motives; but this does not matter: so long as Christ is preached, by whomever and for whatever reason, Paul’s heart is filled with sincere joy (1:12–18). All will turn out for his good and for the honor of Christ, who is glorified whether by Paul’s life or by his death; for him, “to live is Christ, and to die is gain.” Ready to sacrifice the desire to be freed from the bonds of the body and to be with Christ, he will remain, as he in fact will, for the greater profit of these faithful, whom he hopes to see again (1:19–26).
Let the readers conduct themselves in a manner worthy of the Gospel of Christ, in perfect unity of spirit, without fearing their adversaries; for this is their boast: not only to believe in Christ, but to suffer for him, as Paul gives the example (1:27–30). For the sake of what is most dear in Christ and in the communion of minds, let them fill his joy with perfect harmony, avoiding any action motivated by vain glory, indeed considering others better than themselves. To this end, they must take to heart the great lesson Christ has given us: though he might have exploited his equality with God, he emptied himself, taking the form of a slave, becoming like men in all things, humble and obedient even to death on a cross. For this, God has exalted him, giving him a name above every other, so that all creatures in heaven, on earth, and under the earth should acknowledge and confess that “Jesus Christ is Lord,” to the glory of God the Father (2:1–11). Let the faithful, then, work out their salvation in fear and trembling, with that spirit of docility of which they have given proof. God is at work in them, both to will and to act. They shine like lights in the midst of a perverse and crooked generation, proving that he has not labored among them in vain. And if his blood is poured out like a libation upon the sacrificial offering of their faith, he will rejoice, and they too must rejoice (2:12–18).
Paul intends to send Timothy to Philippi, who has already given magnificent proof of his devotion to the cause of the faithful; while others seek their own interests rather than those of Christ. He hopes soon to be with his children himself. Meanwhile, he has decided to send them Epaphroditus, who has recovered from a long illness; they should receive him with joy and hold men of his mettle in high esteem, for in the cause of Christ, in the service of the Apostle, Epaphroditus has risked his life (2:19–30).
Exhorting the faithful again to joy, Paul warns them against those who advocate a circumcision that has lost all value (it is merely a cutting or mutilation: *katatomē*; cf. J. H. Michael, p. 135). What matters is spiritual circumcision. The titles of which these teachers boast would be of no account to Paul; he counts them as refuse, in order to gain Christ and, through him, the true righteousness, sharing in his sufferings, death, and resurrection. It is a striving with all Paul’s energies to reach the goal, just as Christ once laid hold of him: forgetting what lies behind, straining forward to what lies ahead, toward the prize to which God calls him on high in Christ Jesus (3:1–14). In this manner of feeling and acting, the faithful must imitate him, keeping themselves far from the ways of those many who have become “enemies of the cross of Christ” and have made their god their belly. Instead, the homeland of believers is in heaven, where their Savior Jesus Christ will transfigure them into his own glory. The Philippians are Paul’s “joy and crown”; let them stand firm thus in the Lord (3:13–14; 4:1).
Let them be more united, with the help of the "genuine Syzygus," Evodia and Syntyche, who have labored for the Gospel with Clement and the others, "whose names are in the book of life." Let all rejoice in the Lord, showing a gentle kindness (τὸ ἔστικέσε) toward everyone. "The Lord is near." Let them be free from earthly anxieties; let their prayer rise to God; let His peace fill their hearts, as they strive to pursue all that is good and honorable, which they have seen in their Apostle (4:2–9). He thanks them for what they have sent; not that he is unaccustomed to every kind of hardship, but because these gifts prove their affection. They are the only ones from whom he has accepted personal offerings. Now, however, their generosity overflows in this kind of sacrifice, which they have offered to God through him; and He will repay them abundantly. To Him, our Father, be glory forever and ever (4:10–20).
The epilogue (4:21–22) contains general greetings, even from the saints and those of Caesar’s household, and the wish for the grace of Christ.
III. Occasion
The *Philippians* was written when Epaphroditus, having recovered from a serious illness, was about to return to Philippi. Paul wished to thank those good faithful who had shown such affection, both by sending material aid and by arranging for Epaphroditus to remain at his side to assist him on behalf of the community. It is not unlikely that Paul had already written to the Philippians (3:1–18); yet it is difficult to suppose that there was an exchange of letters between Epaphroditus’ arrival and the sending of *Philippians* (cf. J. H. Michael, p. 131 ff.), since Paul here thanks them for the offerings sent by the faithful. Nor is it very plausible that he would have returned to the subject repeatedly, given his evident intention to show, with delicacy, his independence regarding these gifts. That the Philippians were informed of Epaphroditus’ illness may also be explained without a letter from Paul.Certain internal features of the letter seem to diverge, in terms of place and date of composition, from the other three prison epistles. Some aspects of its content and style appear closer to the major Pauline letters than to these. The presence of the danger alluded to (3:2–11; cf. however Col. 2:8–23) suggests a period not far removed from the Galatian crisis (v. *Galatians, Epistle to*). But these criteria are easily subject to subjective interpretation. While in recent decades the number of critics who linked *Philippians* to Paul’s imprisonment in Caesarea has notably declined (cf. T. W. Manson, p. 182), there has been an increase—particularly in non-Catholic circles—in theories favoring an Ephesian origin (cf. W. Michaelis, pp. 2, 8; F. Feine–J. Behm, *Einleitung in das Neue Testament*, 8th ed., Leipzig 1936, p. 177). However, these theories have yet to produce arguments strong enough to counter those favoring Rome.
IV. Pauline Authenticity and Unity
The Pauline authorship of *Philippians*, denied only by radical scholars of the Tübingen and Dutch schools (not all followers of these schools) (cf. M. Goguel, *Introduction au Nouveau Testament*, IV, 1, Paris 1925, pp. 28, 410; J. Huby, p. 264), is now widely accepted. Indeed, even setting aside external testimony, the Pauline characteristics of the letter are so pronounced as to exclude any likelihood of forgery.In addition to the allusions in 1 Clement 3:4; 21:1 (Phil. 1:27); 47:2 (Phil. 4:15), in St. Ignatius’ *Ad Smyrn.* 4:2 (Phil. 13); 11:3 (Phil. 3:15), and *Ad Philad.* 1:5; 8:2 (Phil. 2:3), there is the explicit testimony of Polycarp, *Ad Phil.* 2, who reminds the Philippians of the letters Paul wrote to them; allusions also occur in 1:1 (Phil. 2:17; 4:10); 2:1 (Phil. 2:10; 3:21); 9:2 (Phil. 2:16); 12:3 (Phil. 3:18). The letter is also cited in a writing from the churches of Lyon and Vienne (Eusebius, *Hist. eccl.* 5:2; PG 20, 433). Ascribed to Paul is Phil. 4:18 by St. Irenaeus (*Adv. Haer.* 4:18:4; PG 7, 1026; cf. 4:8:3 [Phil. 4:17]; 5:13:4 [Phil. 3:10]; PG 7, 995, 1159). The authenticity of *Philippians* is commonly affirmed by Clement of Alexandria (*Strom.* 4:13; PG 8, 1300; *Paed.* 1:6; PG 8, 312), Tertullian (*De resurrectione carnis* 3; PL 2, 826 [873]; *Adv. Marcionem* 2:20; PL 2, 522 ff. [534 ff.]), and the Muratorian Fragment (*Enchiridion Biblicum*, Rome 1927, no. 4).
Against the unity of *Philippians*, a positive argument has been drawn from the passage cited from Polycarp, who indeed speaks of "letters" sent by Paul to the Philippians. But aside from the fact that the plural *ἔστικέσε* is often used for a single letter (*litterae*), Polycarp may have been referring either to the collection of letters sent to the Macedonian faithful or, more likely, he was better informed about the correspondence between Paul and the Philippians, which may not have been limited to the canonical writing.
That there is a sudden and unexpected shift at Phil. 3:1–3 is undeniable: 3:1 seems like the beginning of a closing, but then the text resumes forcefully to renew recommendations already made (3:1b), followed by the very harsh expressions of 3:2–18; indeed, the entire chapter recalls the vigorous polemics of the major Pauline letters, almost a reflection of the same struggles. One may suppose an interval in the drafting of *Philippians*, during which the Apostle
would have received news of the machinations of the Judaizers against the beloved community, as well as of the ongoing imprisonment of some, which could have had very harmful repercussions on the others (cf. J. Huby, p. 265 ff.).
The most radical attacks against the unity of *Philippians* come from A. Loisy, *La naissance du christianisme*, Paris 1933, p. 28, and H. Delafosse (Turmel), *L'Épître aux Philippiens*, 1938. For the former, *Philippians* would be a combination of two notes by Paul, joined at the beginning of the 2nd century and supplemented with elements of Christian gnosis (2:6–11) and anti-Judaic polemic; for the latter, the doctrinal passages would be the work of a Marcionite who, around 140, attempted to disseminate under Paul’s name the doctrines of his own master.
Against these attempts at dissection, the majority of critics have spoken out, including A. Jülicher–E. Fascher, *Einleitung in das Neue Testament*, 7th ed., Tübingen 1931, p. 122; M. Goguel, *loc. cit.*, pp. 400–409. The latter concludes (p. 409) that the objections raised against the unity of *Philippians* can be resolved by considering the freedom that characterizes the composition of a letter.
Tudorico da Cassel