TIMOTEO (Τυόθεος), saint. – Collaborator and beloved disciple of St. Paul, born at Lystra in Lycaonia to a pagan father and a Jewish (or proselyte) mother, converted by the Apostle perhaps during his first mission in Asia (45–49), and thereafter his inseparable companion from the second journey (49/50–53) until the end of the first Roman imprisonment (ca. 62–63). During his last journey in Asia (65–66), St. Paul placed him in charge of the important Church of Ephesus, then sent him two letters containing directives for his office as pastor. At Ephesus T. presumably spent his final years, which ended in martyrdom, perhaps in A.D. 97.
I. LIFE
Religiously instructed and initiated into the Holy Scriptures by his mother Eunice and his grandmother Lois (II Tim. 1:5; 3:5), T. was circumcised by Paul, but only to facilitate his work among the Jews, when he took him as a fellow worker in the apostolate (Act. 16:1-3). His conversion to Christianity may have taken place during Paul’s first passage through Lycaonia, when T. witnessed the hardships and persecutions he endured (II Tim. 3:10 ff.). Taken on by Paul in place of Mark, he became his friend and favorite disciple; he was at his side in the foundation of the principal Churches and was entrusted with important missions. Among other things, he was sent to the Corinthians (v. vol. IV, col. 553 ff) to quell the turmoil of the factions (I Cor. 4:17; 16:10 ff.), but his timid character and sickly appearance (ibid. 16:10; I Tim. 4:12; 5:23) were not likely to promote his success, and he was later joined by Titus.He perhaps followed Paul as a prisoner to Caesarea and Rome: the epistles of this period were also written in his name. It is not known whether he went with Paul to Spain; Hebr. 13:23 perhaps alludes to one of his imprisonments or trials. He was, however, again with Paul on his final journey to the East (I Tim. 1:3). It is difficult to determine T.’s age when he was appointed bishop of Ephesus; if Paul, “old” at approximately 65, calls him “young” (ibid. 4:12), he may have been 35–40 years old. After Paul’s martyrdom, he returned to Ephesus from Rome, where Paul had summoned him (II Tim. 1:4; 4:8, 21), perhaps remaining there even after the arrival of s. Giovanni. If he died there as a martyr under the emperor Nerva and the proconsul Peregrinus (A.D. 97), the expressions of Apoc. 2:1-7 may perhaps refer to him indirectly. His body, transferred to Constantinople in 356 and then carried off in the thirteenth century, was recently found beneath the Termoli (v.). The Roman Martyrology commemorates him on 24 January, immediately before commemorating the conversion of his master.
II. — LETTERS OF S. PAUL TO T. — So similar to one another in content and style, I and II Tim. together with Tit. present themselves as having been written under the same circumstances and for the same purposes by the same author, s. Paul, thus forming the group of the three “pastoral” letters (v.).
1. Authenticity
Their literary authenticity, affirmed from the beginning by Christian tradition—which was unanimous until the 19th century—with the exception of certain heretics of the 2nd century, is today denied by the great majority of Protestants, either wholly or in part, solely on literary grounds. Catholics, however, as well as some Protestants, have demonstrated the insufficiency of the arguments brought forward in the face of the favorable historical testimonies, confirmed by important internal arguments; hence the intervention of the Pont. Biblical Commission is justified (12 June 1913: Denz-U, 2172-75). Marcion, Tatian, and Basilides rejected the pastorals because they were contrary to their heresies (Tatian, however, accepted Tit.). The first critical doubts, raised by J. E. C. Schmidt (1804) concerning I Tim., were soon extended to the other two and carried by the Tübingen school to a total denial of their authenticity, on the basis of five arguments: these writings cannot be placed within the life of s. Paul known from Acts; their literary form is too different from that of the other epistles and contains many new words and phrases; their doctrine is also different, even on essential points of Pauline thought, e.g., concerning faith without works; the errors they combat are the Gnosticism of the 2nd century; the Church is presented with the hierarchical organization of the 2nd century, known from the letters of s. Ignatius.Catholics adduce numerous historical testimonies in their favor, beginning with the earliest writers: s. Clement of Rome, the Didache, s. Ignatius of Antioch, s. Polycarp, together with the unanimous manuscript tradition. These arguments are not invalidated by the contrary internal arguments. Since Paul’s first Roman imprisonment (ca. 61-63) ended with his release, after which he continued his activity until 67, it is at least possible to place the pastorals in these years. When these letters are compared with Paul’s others, especially with the paraenetic passages, the difference is smaller than in the prison letters; they therefore represent a later stage. The false doctrines, as well as the counsels intended for pastors, required new terms, and Paul was a forger of new words (A. Deissmann). There are also numerous similarities, even in the rarer expressions (it is therefore unlikely that Paul made use of a secretary, as Feine-Behm suppose). Almost all of Paul’s doctrines are found in the “pastorals,” including that of faith without works; if there is an evolution, it corresponds to the new conditions in which the life of the Churches was unfolding. The errors condemned may be Gnostic, but only at an early stage: Harnack acknowledges that they may all predate 64. The form of hierarchy presupposed here is also earlier than that attested by s. Ignatius (supreme authority is not yet entirely in the hands of the local bishops, and the terms “bishop” and “presbyter” appear as synonyms), in a period of transition between the initial period (Act. 6, 1-6; 14, 23) and that of the 2nd century (v. DEACON; PRESBYTER).
Among non-Catholics the “fragmentary theory” now prevails: a forger of the 2nd century, in order to combat Gnosticism and recommend the hierarchy of the Church, is supposed to have composed these letters by imitating the Apostle’s style, inserting passages from authentic letters, indeed entire “notes” (Harnack, Renan, von Soden, Bultmann). But the hypothesis raises more problems than it solves (Dibelius): among other things, why are the hierarchy and the errors not presented as they existed in the 2nd century? No doubt is possible concerning the integrity of the pastorals.
2. Time of composition
The circumstances of composition cannot be determined with certainty in every detail. It is certain that the personal information refers to an activity of Paul subsequent to the Roman imprisonment mentioned in Act. 28, 30.It is generally held that the Apostle, immediately after having been in Spain, made the journey to the East attested by the three pastoral letters. The itinerary is very uncertain: according to some, he went first to Crete, leaving Titus there, and then to Ephesus, where he installed T.; he would then have passed through Macedonia and from there written I Tim. and Tit. at approximately the same time (65-66). From Nicopolis in Epirus, where he would have spent the winter, he would have returned to Troas, Ephesus, and Miletus. Perhaps at this time he was arrested again and taken to Rome; according to others, however, the arrest took place in Rome, where Paul had returned on his own initiative together with s. Peter. Shortly after arriving in Rome he wrote II Tim., from which it is known that his imprisonment was very severe, so that his friends had difficulty approaching him; although he had favorably overcome the first hearing of the trial, Paul hoped for no further release except through death.
There is no reason to alter the chronological order hitherto universally accepted. II Tim. is certainly the last: according to this letter Paul is a prisoner and awaits death. It remains uncertain which of the other two, which show him free and fully active, is earlier; most consider it to be I Tim. Without any real foundation, von Soden, Moffat, and others give precedence to II Tim. The Latin canon places the two before T.
3. Doctrine
The doctrinal importance of I and II Tim. is noteworthy. The principal doctrines of Christianity are found there, with some development, especially the universality of Redemption, the Church, the Sacraments, biblical inspiration (v. vol. VII, col. 320) (II Tim. 3, 16); above all, the fundamental principles of ecclesiastical law; the power of the hierarchical orders derives not from the assembly of the faithful but from apostolic authority through the rite of the imposition of hands (v.); the bishop already appears as the future heir of full apostolic powers.The principal subject of I Tim. is the errors from which T. must preserve the faithful, the virtues necessary in officials of the Church, and the duties of the various categories of persons. After the introductory formula (1, 1 ff.), Paul reminds T. that he left him at Ephesus to oppose the heretics who still adhere to the Law, which, however, after the Redemption, no longer has any reason to exist, only the precept of charity remaining; T. must act decisively toward those who thus suffer shipwreck in the faith (1, 1-20). He must then insist on prayer, which is to be made also for those who govern (“God wills the salvation of all”); it will be effective when it rises from a pure heart, devoted to its duties (2, 1-15). Special virtues are required of bishops, deacons, and the women who assist the officials of the Church; T. must take this into account when he has to decide on their selection (3, 1-16). T. himself must forestall present and future errors through authoritative teaching strengthened by example, guarding against them first of all through the practice of piety and keeping the grace of ordination alive (4, 1-16). Paul tells him how to behave toward the various categories of the faithful, how to proceed with the admission of women into the group of widows, with what reverence he must treat presbyters, but also how cautious he must be before conferring spiritual powers upon them (5, 1-25). The duties of certain classes of persons, especially of servants toward their masters, above all when they are Christians; the rich must beware of avarice, the root of every evil (6, 1-21). Here the letter ends abruptly with the greeting: “Grace be with you.”
II Tim. has its own characteristics. With the heartfelt emphasis of a father leaving his beloved son his final recommendations, s. Paul inculcates upon T. the supreme duty of guarding the deposit of the faith, laboring as a “good soldier of Christ” in the tireless preaching of the Gospel, and concludes by begging him to come soon to Rome.
In the prologue he gratefully recalls before God the faith of T. inherited from his mother and grandmother (1:1–5); then he encourages him to devote himself to the propagation of the Gospel, rekindling the heavenly gifts received at ordination, without taking scandal at the trials through which the Apostle is passing, since for this God chose both of them from eternity (1:5–18). Let him therefore work as a good soldier of Christ, keeping himself apart from worldly cares, glad to relive the sufferings of the Lord, avoiding vain controversies, the preferred weapon of those who sow error, but without tiring of teaching the truth (2:1–26). Paul foresees even graver errors and moral deviations in the future, but T. must not lose confidence in the final triumph; rather, he should work ardently, bearing in mind the teachings given him by Paul in word and example and making special use of the Holy Scriptures, whose efficacy is assured by their divine inspiration (3:1–17). T. should treasure these recommendations: they are perhaps the last, since the Apostle foresees the end approaching through martyrdom, which he nevertheless regards as a sacrificial libation, the culmination and reward of his labors (4:1–8c). Paul still desires to see T. once more and asks him to come to Rome before winter, bringing Mark with him, who will help him intensify his overly limited ministry. Paul is now almost alone: his former collaborators are far away. But by now, even though the first hearing of his case has ended well for him, he has no illusions about his imminent end. Meanwhile, in the solitude of the cold prison, his cloak, left at Troas, would be useful to him, and the books and parchments of Holy Scripture would provide him with welcome company: he asks that they be brought to him. During T.’s absence from Ephesus, Tychicus will replace him. Other minor items of news, greetings, and the blessing follow (4:8d–22).
This letter too (as in I Tim. 1:15; 3:1; 4:9) perhaps cites one of the oldest Christian maxims, introduced by the words «faithful is the saying» (II Tim. 11 ff.). From Jewish tradition, on the other hand, comes the names of the magicians Jannes and Jambres (Lat. Mambres), who opposed Moses before Pharaoh (3:8). The inspiration of the Old Testament is affirmed with particular force; unique in the New Testament is the mention here of prayer for the dead, certainly already practiced among the faithful: the Apostle formulates a moving prayer for the Christian Onesiphorus, who had benefited him and who at that time was almost certainly already dead (1:16–18 and 4:19). The intimate and personal tone of the letter is a strong internal argument for its authenticity, acknowledged by many non-Catholics; it was almost solely its stylistic resemblance to I Tim. that gave rise to doubts.