PHOTIUS, Patriarch of Constantinople. - Without repeating what is said about the schism of Photius under the entry Byzantium, a brief biography of Photius is given here, along with some notes to characterize his personality as a writer and patriarch.
I. LIFE
Photius was born in Constantinople of a noble and religious family around 801; his father and mother suffered for the faith in the iconoclast persecution, according to Photius's own testimony (PG 120, 1020 A).
Photius received a very extensive education, from grammar all the way to philosophy and theology, not excluding even medicine and jurisprudence. He became a master in philosophy and theology and had great success in teaching and in the pedagogical art of attracting disciples. But he was soon called to the clerical life, where his brothers Sergius and Tarasius had already found a place. He rose here to the position of president of the imperial chancery (protosecretary with the rank of protosecretary), and was later chosen for a diplomatic mission to the court of the caliph of Baghdad. It is very significant that throughout the reign of Michael III (842-67) Photius enjoyed the favor of the influential educated man, first of Theoctistus (killed in 853) and then of Bardas. It is therefore no wonder that the latter, after his conflict with the patriarch Ignatius, offered the dignity of patriarch to his favorite, who was certainly one of the most famous and learned men of the court. As to the question whether Photius was canonically elected after a possible abdication of the legitimate patriarch, it can probably be said that Ignatius abdicated conditionally, but that Photius did not observe the condition of the abdication. Moreover, he received the sum, the orders of lector, subdiaconate, diaconate, priesthood, and episcopate in the 6 following days (22-25 Dec. 853) from Gregory Asbestas, archbishop deposed by St. Ignatius and suspended by Pope Benedict III. Nevertheless Photius sought to gain the consent of Pope Nicholas I, to whom he sent in the spring of 860 a letter that also contained his profession of faith. The Supreme Pontiff, while praising this, did not yet approve Photius as patriarch, but commissioned the bishops Raduald of Porto and Zachary of Anagni to travel to Constantinople to inquire into the internal religious state, without however making a decision on the dispute between Ignatius and Photius. The two Latin bishops, overstepping their competence, gave their consent to the deposition of Ignatius decreed in their presence at a Synod of Constantinople (Apr.-Sept. 861). The Pope disapproved of this Synod, rejected the apology of his own cause made by Photius in a second letter to Nicholas I, also informed the patriarchs of Alexandria, Antioch, and Jerusalem of his decision, exhorting them not to recognize Photius, and in a Roman Synod of Apr. 863 solemnly condemned Photius and his followers. The Pope's firm stance aroused the anger of Photius, who began his open struggle against him, culminating in the excommunication pronounced by the Photian Synod of 867 against the Supreme Pontiff, a month and a half before his death. The successor of the deceased Pope, Adrian II, found the situation of the Byzantine patriarchate changed, since the new emperor Basil had deposed Photius and recalled Ignatius, and desired papal legates for a council to be held in Constantinople. The Pope consented and sent there the bishops Donatus of Ostia, Stephen of Nepi, and the deacon Marinus. These presided over the Eighth Ecumenical Council (5 Oct. 869-28 Feb. 870). The Pope approved the decrees of this Council, among which was a new condemnation against Photius, but the latter had already regained imperial favor before the death of Ignatius (23 Nov. 877); indeed the Emperor entrusted him with the education of his own children. When the legitimate patriarch died, almost two decades had already passed since the Byzantine dissension that broke out in 858. Finding himself faced with the fact of the death of St. Ignatius and the installation of Photius in the vacant see, and having received letters from the Emperor and from Photius himself requesting pontifical consent, the new pope
John VIII declared himself ready to recognize Photius if he had asked forgiveness at the new Synod of Constantinople (879-80), had renounced jurisdiction in Bulgaria, had shown mercy toward the Ignatians, and had accepted the canon that henceforth no layman should be raised to the dignity of bishop. Although Photius did not largely fulfill these conditions, it seems that John VIII was satisfied with a mild reproach in the letter addressed to him in Aug. 880. According to the historians Grumel and Dvornik, neither John VIII nor his successors excommunicated Photius, so that the second schism of Photius would have to be eliminated. Their opinion is at least probable, but it does not consider the further question whether Photius, after his deposition under the new emperor Leo VI in 886 and until his death in the last decade of the 9th century, held Catholic sentiments, nor does it highlight Photius's open struggle after his deposition against the Filioque (v.).
II. PERSONALITY
The great merits of Photius in philology and exegesis are frankly recognized, as attested by his glossary, his book Amphilochia, and his biblical commentaries recently edited by Staab or noted by Devreese and Reuss; moreover his literary erudition is praised, which has preserved for us so many excerpts of classical and Christian works, today lost, in his book Myriobiblion; even in his letters, excluding however the polemical ones, there is no lack of merits, especially in those of ascetic content; his discourses, partly preserved, are rich in Christian thoughts and elevated in form. Some books already attributed to him are today contested (such as his book against the Paulicians), or certainly by other authors, such as the so-called Nomocanon, although some revision of this work was his. Photius gave proof first and foremost of his receptive nature; he was ignorant of the Latin language and of the treasures of Western patristics, except for a few texts already translated into Greek beforehand. A knowledge of the works of St. Augustine, especially of the De Trinitate, would have been useful to Photius. As patriarch he displayed much skill in defense of his position, but he also used illegitimate means in the phase of his struggle against the papacy. He did not lack pastoral zeal and interest in the propagation of the Gospel among the pagans: he also worked for the union of heterodox Christians (Armenians, etc.). The intellectual and moral figure of Photius thus offers problems not always easy for the scholar who wishes to go back to the sources, which unfortunately are partly lost, so that even on important questions historical certainty cannot yet be attained.