PORTUGAL (1673), where he remained for twelve years, acquitting himself very well, even during the disputes that Pope Innocent XI had with that kingdom.
In 1685 he was transferred to the nunciature in Spain, where he received the appointment as cardinal with the title of St. Prisca (2 Sept. 1686), later changed (1701) to that of St. Peter in Chains. Bishop of Carpentras in 1688, he came to Rome only the following year and refused the bishopric of Ferrara because it was burdened with 8,000 scudi. On 27 Aug. 1691 he became bishop of Spoleto, which he resigned (1695) for the legation of Bologna. On 11 Nov. 1697 he became bishop of Faenza. He was judged wise, prudent, and of excellent morals, although his enemies accused him of greed for wealth.
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DÜRER, ALBRECHT
Painter, woodcut artist, engraver, draftsman, and art theorist; b. Nuremberg, 21 May 1471; d. there, 6 Apr. 1528. His father (Albrecht) was a goldsmith in Nuremberg; after studying in his father’s workshop, Dürer entered that of Michael Wolgemut, where he worked from 1486 to 1490. He then traveled through Upper Germany, Switzerland, and Alsace. Returning to Nuremberg, he married Agnes Frey and in the same year (1494) undertook his “first journey to Italy” (Venice). The following year (1495) he was again in Nuremberg, where he remained to work, interrupted only by two highly important journeys for his artistic formation and for the vast diffusion of his art: 1505–1507, “second journey to Italy”; 1520–22, “journey to the Netherlands.”
Dürer is the most famous and greatest German artist: under the influence of Italian art, his work leads from the late Gothic to the Renaissance; conversely, through his engravings, elements of German art and his original compositions spread throughout the contemporary world.
His earliest works still reflect the late Gothic taste of Nuremberg painting of the 15th century. The series begins brilliantly with his famous self-portrait at age thirteen (drawing, Albertina, Vienna), followed by the youthful portraits of his father (Uffizi, Florence; and London, 1490 and 1497), the self-portraits of 1492–93 (painting in the Louvre, drawings in Lviv and Erlangen), and the drawing of his fiancée Agnes (c. 1495). The woodcuts for books published in Basel (1491–92) precede the 15 woodcuts of the *Apocalypse* (1497–98). While in Nuremberg and later in Venice, he had been influenced by Italian Renaissance art (especially Mantegna, Pollaiuolo—also through engravings—and later Jacopo de’ Barbari), as seen in the portrait of *Friedrich der Weise* of Saxony (1496, Berlin) and in the triptych of the Madonna for the same prince (Dresden, now in Russia?). In the *Apocalypse* series, however, Dürer returns to his most characteristic and fantastic expression, accepting only a few Italian elements. In the following years he achieves a balance between Renaissance symmetry and monumentality and the Gothic-Northern expressiveness, especially transmitted to him through the engravings of Schongauer. Typical examples are, among the woodcuts: from 1496 onward, the *Great Passion* (which continues until 1510–11) and the series of the *Life of the Virgin*; among paintings, the *Self-Portrait* of 1500 (Munich; after that of 1498 in Madrid), the triptych of the *Baumgartner Family* (1503–1504, Munich), the *Adoration of the Magi* (Florence, Uffizi, 1504); among engravings: *St. Eustace*, *Nemesis*, *The Nativity* (1504), *Adam and Eve* (1504).
Returning to Venice, he painted as an altarpiece for the Fondaco dei Tedeschi the *Madonna of the Rosary* (1506, Prague) and the most delicate *Portrait of a Venetian Woman* (Vienna, 1505), and as a result drew closer than ever to Venetian Renaissance art and even to the grand compositions of central Italy (Raphael and Leonardo): *Christ among the Doctors* (formerly Barberini, Rome), the *Adam and Eve* of 1507 (Madrid, copies in Florence), the *Martyrdom of the Ten Thousand* (1508, Vienna), the *Trinity in the Clouds* (1511, Vienna), and others. The Heller Altarpiece for Frankfurt was destroyed (1509). This was followed by the mature series of the *Small Passion* (37 woodcuts, 1511), *Engraved Passion* (16 engravings of 1513), and other masterpieces of engraving, such as *St. Jerome*, *Melencolia I*, *Knight, Death and the Devil* (1513–14). In the same years he executed major works for Emperor Maximilian I: the 92 woodcut sheets of the *Triumphal Arch of the Emperor*, a kind of triumphal arch with allegorical figures, the designs for the *Triumphal Procession* of the same (a kind of allegorical woodcut procession), and more than 40 drawings on the margins of the emperor’s *Prayer Book*. At the *Reichstag* of Augsburg in 1518 he drew the emperor’s portrait (drawing, Vienna) and subsequently executed painted portraits of him in Nuremberg and Vienna, as well as a woodcut. In these decades the most mature painted and engraved portraits by Dürer were created: the *Portrait of Michael Wolgemut* (Nuremberg, 1516), the portraits made in Antwerp (1521: formerly Dresden, Boston, Gardner Collection, Madrid), *Hieronymus Holzschuher* and *Jakob Muffel* (Berlin, 1526), as well as the *Madonna with the Apple* (Uffizi, 1526), all paintings; the engravings *Pirkheimer*, *Friedrich der Weise* (1524), *Melanchthon* (1526), *Erasmus* (1526). As a theorist he propagated Renaissance ideas without in the least losing his own artistic personality; in this way he had spiritual contact with Leonardo, personal contact with the Venetians (Bellini), and exchanged drawings with Raphael. He wrote *Unterweisung der Messung mit Zirkel und Richtscheit* (*Instruction in Measurement with Compass and Straightedge*, published in 1525), a book on the art of fortification (1527), and *Four Books on Human Proportion*, unfinished. A kind of artistic testament are the two panels known as the *Four Apostles* (John, Peter, Paul, and the Evangelist Mark), dedicated by him to the city of Nuremberg (1526). See pl. CXXVII–CXXVIII.