Mani and Manichaeism

MANI AND MANICHAEISM. - I. LIFE. - Mani, born at Mardinu or Afrunya in Babylonia on 14 April 216. His name is of Aramaic origin; the form Manichaeus derives from Syriac: Mānī hajā = "Mani the living" (gnostic terminology; cf. the self-designations current among the Naassenes in Hippolytus, Ref., V, 8, 31 ff.). His father Patek (Patig, Patakias) came from Hamadan (Ecbatana) in Media and belonged to the reigning family of the Arsacids. His mother Marjam was also descended from royal stock.

Mani therefore, though born in Babylonia, was of Persian origin and of noble family. In Babylonia his father had become a member of a Baptist sect, of an encratite character (nuqtasilah), whose adherents called themselves "the pure" and wore white garments. Their encratism corresponds to Christian encratism. They were probably Christians, but not identical with the Mandaeans (cf. E. Peterson, in Vigiliae christianae, Amsterdam 1949; a different interpretation in H.-Cr. Puech, Le manichéisme, etc., Paris 1949, p. 41 ff.). Mani, raised in this environment, later broke away from the Baptists. From the Kephalaia, VI (ed. cited below, p. 33, 31 ff.) it emerges that the dispute concerned the matter of Baptism: water, which for Mani belonged to the evil world (perhaps on the basis of a Marcionite tradition?). In fact Manichaeism rejected Baptism in water (Puech, op. cit., pp. 87, 180 ff., nn. 363, 364). But the break with the Baptists is probably also connected with a revelation that he had at the age of twelve, the age of discretion, at which perhaps the religious duties of the Baptists began. The Twin-Spirit (Paraclete) appeared to him and revealed to him the Whole Truth (cf. Puech, op. cit., p. 42 ff. The description given in the Kephalaia, I, pp. 14, 30 ff. is preferable to that of the Fihrist, which speaks of two revelations). The figure of the Twin-Spirit is known from the Apocryphal Acts of the Apostles (cf. E. Peterson, op. cit., pp. 156-60). It may perhaps be said that the break with the Baptists led Mani to the group of radical encratites who replaced the Baptism of water with the experience of the Pentecostal Spirit and who were not averse to accepting private revelations. Around the years 240-242 Mani was in India (Kephalaia, I, pp. 15, 24 ff.), more precisely in Turan and Mekran (present-day Baluchistan), where the King, seeing in Mani the true Buddha, converted to Manichaeism (H.-Cr. Puech, op. cit., p. 45). From India he returned (by sea) to Persia, summoned by King Shapur I and recommended by the King's brother, Pārāz, who had become a follower of Mani. The meeting, which probably took place on 9 April 243 (Puech, op. cit., p. 46), was favorable for Mani. He was granted the freedom to preach throughout Persian territory. In the King's retinue (comitatus), Mani also took part in the war against the Romans (probably against Valerian, 256-60). Freedom of worship under Shapur I gave Mani the opportunity for great missionary journeys throughout Persian territory. After the death of Shapur I and with the accession to power of his second successor Bahram I (274-77) the situation changed. The King was under the influence of the Magi, who, led by the mōbēd (priest) Kartir, accused Mani of destroying the Mazdean religion. The heresiarch was imprisoned and died after

26 days of suffering, probably on a Monday, on 26 February 277 (ibid., p. 53) in prison. His martyrdom in Manichaean tradition is called a crucifixion, although Mani did not undergo the torture of the cross. For his followers the "apostle" suffers the death of Jesus, an idea also not unknown to the Apocryphal Acts of the Apostles (v.).

II. THE WRITINGS OF MANI AND THE MANICHAEANS

Manichaeism had seven canonical writings: 1) the Sāpurakān, a book written by Mani in the Persian language (pehlēst) and dedicated to Shapur; 2) the Pangelo (the Living); 3) the Treasure of Life; 4) the Pragmotsia (Treatise); 5) the Book of Mysteries; 6) the Book of Giants; 7) the Letters. These six writings were composed in the Syriac language (Eastern Aramaic; Puech, op. cit., pp. 67 and 149, n. 262). A so to speak semi-canonical character must be attributed to the Kephalaia and to the Epistola fundamenti (of the latter, known among the Manichaeans in North Africa, a Chinese treatise, still unpublished, seems to speak; Puech, op. cit., p. 149, n. 262). The fragments of the Book of Giants have been published by W. B. Henning, in Bull. of the School of Oriental and African Studies (11 [1943], pp. 52-74), the Kephalaia by Polotsky and Böhlig (Stuttgart 1936-39). Our knowledge of Manichaeism has increased appreciably following the discovery of Manichaean texts in the Coptic language (v. C. Schmidt and H. J. Polotsky, Ein Mani Fund in Aegypten [Sitzungsber. Berlin. Akad. 1933, 1]) and of Manichaean texts in various languages found in Turkestan (v. e.g., F. W. Müller, Handschriftenrester in Estrangelo-Schrift aus Turfan, in Abhand., Berlin. Akad. 1904; F. C. Andreas-W. Henning, Mittelfranische Manichäica aus Chinesisch-Turkestan, I, II, III, Sitzungsber. Berlin. Akad. 1932, 1933, 1934; W. Henning, Ein manichäisches Betund Beichtbuch, in Abhand., Berlin. Akad. 1936, n. 10; E. Waldschmidt-W. Lentz, Die Stellung Jesu im Manichäismus, ibid., 1926 [Manichaean hymns in the Chinese language]; id., Manichäische Dogmatik aus chinesischen und iranischen Texten. Sitzungsber. Berlin. Akad. 1933, 13, for other publications by Henning v. Puech, op. cit., p. 150, n. 263; ibid. also on a new text of hymns in the Chinese language). Of Manichaean writings in the Coptic language there have been published: H. J. Polotsky, Manichäische Homilien (Stuttgart 1934); C. R. C. Allberry, A Manichaean Psalmbook, II (ibid. 1938); v. T. Säve-Söderbergh, Studies in the Coptic Manichaean Psalm-Book (Uppsala 1949). In the light of these new materials one can now study the Manichaean extracts in Theodore bar Kōnaj (8th cent.), v. H. Pognon, Inscriptions mandaites (Paris 1898-99), in the Fihrist (= catalogue) of Muhammad b. an-Nadim (d. in 1995) v. C. Flügel, Mani (Leipzig 1862); the Acta Archelai ed. Beeson (ibid. 1906) and the notices in Sahrastānī, Alexander of Lycopolis, Titus of Bostra, Simplicius and especially St. Augustine (the anti-Manichaean writings in CSEL, 25, Vienna 1891-92, also contains: Evodius, De fide).

III. THE EXPANSION

On the expansion of the Manichaean religion there exists no up-to-date study. For the propaganda in the West v. Em. de Stoop, Essai sur la diffusion du manichéisme dans l'Empire Romain (Ghent 1909). On Manichaeism in the Muslim countries v. H. H. Schaeder, Manichter und Muslim, in Zeitschrift der deutschen morgenländ. Gesellsch., 82 (1928), p. 76 ff.; G. Vajda, in Riv. degli studi orientali, 17 (1937), p. 173 ff.; U. Pestalozzi, Il manicheismo presso i Turchi occidentali ed orientali, in Rend. R. Istit. lombardo di scien. e lettere, 67 (1934), pp. 417-97. On the diffusion in Central Asia and in the Far East v. P. Pelliot, in Rev. d'hist. et de littérat. relig., new series, 3 (1912), pp. 97-119 and: Les traditions manichéennes au Fou-kien, in Tsoung Pao, XXII, Paris 1923, p. 193 ff.; W. Henning, Neue Materialien zur Geschichte des M., in Zeitschr. d. deutsch. morgenld. Gesellsch., 90 (1936), p. 1 ff. Especially noteworthy is that the Turkish people of the Uighurs in the territory of Turfan embraced the religion of Mani down to the 12th century.

IV. THE DOCTRINE

Mani's teaching is based on the concept of a continued prophetism, which, however, under the influence of the Christian religion, fixed a term to the arrival of new messengers from the celestial world. The coming of the Paraclete, with whom Mani identifies himself, signifies the end of the world and the end of the mission of these messengers. From this point of view Mani remains tied to the Christian tradition. The doctrine of continued prophetism is known from the ideas of the Jewish-Christians (v. most recently: H. I. Scheeps, Theologie und Geschichte des Indenchristentums, Tübingen 1949, pp. 87-116, 335-340). It is also found in the gnosis of the Sethians (v. the [Syriac] Book of the Caves and the Coptic gnostic book Revelation of Adam to his son Seth, v. H.-Ch. Puech, in Coptic studies in honor of W. E. Crum, Boston 1950, p. 137).

It must be a matter of a speculation either Jewish or Jewish-Christian that Mani will have known in Mesopotamia. The names of the messengers in the list vary according to circumstances. Sometimes they contain the names of the patriarchs of the Old Testament, sometimes also the names of Zoroaster, Buddha, Lao-tseu, Jesus, etc. (v. Ch. Puech, Manicheisme cit., p. 144 ff.). Mani distinguishes himself from his predecessors in his quality of Paraclete "seal of the prophets" and the "apostle" of the "last generation." Mani took the term "apostle" from the Christian tradition, but broadening the concept of apostle perhaps under the influence of the Apocryphal Acts of the Apostles. From the same source comes also his conviction of the ecumenicity of his mission. Mani's self-designation as "apostle of Jesus Christ" at the beginning of his epistles is the evident proof that Mani did not have the intention, often attributed to him, of founding a new religion, but that he wanted only to bring the Christian Revelation itself to its ultimate end. One can up to a certain point interpret Mani's mystical illumination by framing it within the framework of the ideas of the Encratites in Mesopotamia. Mani, who does not accept married life, becomes an "apostle" and as such receives the Paraclete, the "twin" spirit. The Paraclete makes him hear the voice of God and teaches the whole truth (v. Jn. 15, 26, 16, 12). The mystical union with the Paraclete, which according to Kephalaia (p. 16, 23 ff.) made him become: "one body and one spirit" with him, is based on St. Paul, I Cor. 6, 17. The intellectual character of the illumination by the Paraclete leads him toward a gnostic knowledge (v. Kephalaia, p. 15). The Encratite basis of Mani's gnosis is evident from his identification of matter with concupiscence. Without concupiscence there would be no material world. Matter is dark because concupiscence lacks the light of intelligence. The dualism of God and Hyle, of Light and Darkness in Mani is therefore fundamentally an anthropological dualism, but the extension of the anthropological dualism to the entire world is justified by the analogy that exists between microcosm and macrocosm. As the Jewish-Christian eschatology is not only a doctrine of man's salvation but also concerns the entire world, so Mani's doctrine is a doctrine that is also concerned with the universe. The situation of fallen man is mirrored, so to speak, in the situation of a fallen universe. If in man God, that is, the soul of man consubstantial with God, and Matter, that is, the body, seen under the aspect of its concupiscence, Light and Darkness, are mixed, one must suppose that the universe too is in the same state of mixture. The light and the darkness in the world, which in the beginning were separated into two clearly distinct kingdoms, have become mixed, as the soul has become mixed with the body. One day the Hyle sees the kingdom of Light and is seized by the desire to invade this foreign territory. The idea of an attack of the initial darkness was perhaps suggested to Mani by a Jewish or Christian tradition that attributed to the Pneuma of Gen. 1, 2 the function of separating the region of light from that of darkness (Gen. 1, 4; cf. Theophilus of Antioch, Ad Autolyc., II, 13: PG 6, 1072-73). The Father of "greatness" (majesty) faced the attack by sending to meet it "the Primal

Man" (not to be confused with the "earthly Adam") with his soul and his 5 elements (air, wind, light, water, fire); in this combat "the Primal Man" suffers a defeat, the darkness devours the luminous elements of the "Primal Man." Thus the mixture of light and darkness in this world came about. The account is based on the presupposition of the idea of a Primal Man, of a cosmic Adam, essentially "light" who is God, more precisely: essence in God. At this point Mani continues an antecedent gnostic speculation. The idea of a cosmic Adam and of his fall was known also among the Encratites; characteristic of Mani is the substitution of the fall with the idea of a defeat in combat. As the Primal Man, though God, is not identical with God, so "the Primal Man does not identify himself with his five luminous elements." In the defeat the "Primal Man" loses his consciousness only for a moment, then recovers and asks the "Father of greatness" for his liberation. For this prayer of the "Primal Man" too there is an analogy in a tradition independent of Mani (v. E. Peterson, La libération d'Adame de l'Ananke, in Revue biblique, 55 [1948], p. 199 ff.). The Father sends to the aid of the Primal Man the "Living Spirit" who extends his right hand to the Primal Man, who takes it and is brought back to the paradise of light. The description of the liberation of the Primal Man was perhaps elaborated on the basis of the description of Christ's descensus ad inferos. Christ's own hand in the descensus (v., e.g., Epistola apostolorum, 27, ed. Duensing, p. 23) served as a model, but the handclasp took on in Mani a special importance due to an Iranian tradition where this gesture was a rite of a religious and moral character. The Primal Man therefore was saved, but not so his "soul," his "armor," the five luminous "elements," which had been lost in unconsciousness. To save these the demiurge creates the world. From the skin of the demonic archons ten heavens are created, from their flesh eight earths, from the uncontaminated light the sun and moon are created, from the partly contaminated light the stars. The rest of the light mixed with the darkness is extracted and refined following the activity of the "third messenger." This activity has in part a mechanical character, in part a libidinous mechanical character, because by appealing to the mechanism of sexual life the particles of light that the demons had devoured are extracted along with the seed. The repugnant images used by Mani in the account of the seduction of the archons, even the image of the abortion, are not creations of Mani but come from an antecedent gnostic tradition. The last attempt of the Hyle to preserve its dominion consists in the creation of Adam and Eve, who in their bodies preserve the animal-like form of the archons, while their libido corresponds to the desire of Matter to to keep the luminous soul imprisoned forever, transmitted in generation. The saving activity that is now concentrated on man is entrusted to Jesus, to this luminous Jesus (ziud) whom the Apocryphal Acts of the Apostles also know (v. E. Peterson, in Vigiliae christianae cit., p. 157 ff.). This Jesus-Noös (intelligence) awakens Adam, shows him his suffering soul and the animal nature of his body, reveals to him his heavenly origin, the "gnosis," the knowledge of what has been, what is and what will be. Then Adam accepts the commandments of Jesus and, rejecting the body of death, becomes free forever. The Christian character of Mani's heresy is demonstrated by the doctrine of the Jesus patibilis who presents himself as the soul in the world "crucified," "omni suspensus ex ligno" (cf. St. Augustine, Contra Faustum, XX, 2, p. 536, 21st ed. I. Zychia, CSEL, 25). The salvation of the world is a very slow progress; it is bound to the acceptance of Mani's encratite doctrine, which will bring about the end of this world. The general lines of Manichaean eschatology are those of the Church, and a certain millenarianism can also be observed in it. The goal is the separation of the two substances. The individual must create the dualism within himself by means of gnosis. Neither Baptism nor Eucharist has any value. Prayers and hymns constitute the sanctifying action. It is difficult not to commit sins. The Manichaean books on the confession of sins demonstrate this. The elements weep when the Manichaeans break bread or gather figs. The problem can be mitigated only by the distinction between auditores (catechumens) and electi, but not resolved. The auditores are obliged to observe a kind of decalogue, but for the rest they may possess property, contract marriage, etc. These works can be useful to them if they are done for the benefit of the elect (almsgiving), but they do not free the auditor from the transmigration of souls. The perfect is forbidden every form of possession and profane work. He may wear only one garment a year (encratite tradition) and may take a meal only once a day (in the evening); frequent and long fasts are prescribed for them, and they must strictly observe the three seals: of the mouth (not eating meat, not drinking wine, etc.), of the hand (not committing gestures that can injure the soul in the world) and of the bosom (carnal abstinence). On this point too Mani is the continuator of the encratite tradition in Mesopotamia. Among foods and legumes, melons and gourds are preferred, since they contain much of the luminous substance. Eating itself does not serve for the sustenance of the body, but for the extraction of the luminous substance. In this sense every meal of the elect is a religious action. The preparation of foods, which cannot be done without sins, is entrusted to the catechumens. The elect curses the bearer of the foods, rejecting for his own person any responsibility for the sin that the other has committed, and nevertheless accepts his gifts. The consequences of Mani's doctrine have led to solutions that are not satisfactory; St. Augustine, converted from Manichaeism to the doctrine of the Church, put his finger on this fact. But the fact that St. Augustine was for nine years an auditor in Mani's sect is proof that this heresy must have contained something very attractive, which today for us, who know only a part of the antecedent traditions collected by Mani, is difficult to evaluate.

Erik Peterson