CHILDHOOD. – Lat. *pueritia*: the age of life (v.) that follows infancy and immediately precedes adolescence (v.), preparing, in apparent calm, for the overwhelming pubertal crisis of the latter. A phase of “turgor” extending approximately from the 7th to the 12th year of age, it should be regarded as one of those periods of potential enrichment for the organism and mind that always precede, according to the auxological law of alternations (Godin), the dynamic unfolding of the morphological and psychological phases of “procured” development.
I. PSYCHOLOGY OF CHILDHOOD
The observable phenomenal changes at this age, as with every other, are causally linked in particular to the new orientation of the endocrine constellation (v. ENDOCRINE, GLANDOLE, GLANDS), in which, toward the end of childhood, signs of pineal deficiency begin to appear, while the thymus continues to promote the progressive development of bodily mass. A progressive intensification of the function of the adrenal cortex and the anterior pituitary marks the characteristics of the endocrine equilibrium proper to childhood. This transition to new glandular orientations, the apparent organic and physiopsychological calm of this age—though deeply marked by a fervent accumulation of abundant material for subsequent constructions and differentiations—makes childhood particularly delicate and in need of prudent caution. It is necessary, especially at the beginning of this phase of life, not to be tempted by considerations of a practical social nature or family vanity, pushing the individual toward premature performance, whether physical or intellectual, before the so-called crisis of “little puberty” is fully concluded. This critical period of “procreative” and slight schizoidism, occurring between the 5th and 6th year (Pende), closes infancy (v.).
Here the principle of physical and mental hygiene must be strictly applied: sparing the individual efforts more suited to a later age, for example, the beginning of a new order of studies or a change in educational direction, during the climacteric periods of life, before the transition from the now-completed developmental phase is well balanced. Only at this point is the individual capable of maximum efficiency with minimal harm; to create a mismatch between the physical, intellectual, and moral demands of the moment and the performance possible for the degree of maturity attained may result in paying the price of precocity with irreparable damage, both present and future, to the healthy evolution of subsequent ages.
Physically, childhood requires careful medical oversight, precisely because hidden damages may be prepared during this period that laypersons would not perceive, though their effects would become manifest in later years. Particularly in the second half of childhood, or toward its close, the subject may exhibit even severe manifestations from new glandular, pulmonary, or nervous invasions by the tubercle bacillus, especially if the individual, in poor hygienic conditions, was subjected to premature and unconsidered exertion at the start of schooling.
Psychologically, childhood should be regarded as an eminently assimilative, imitative, goal-directed, extroverted age with a predominant emotional development, capable of assimilating and capitalizing on sensations, feelings, emotions, and ideational orientations—good or bad—that, more or less elaborated and transformed, sometimes rendered unrecognizable in subsequent periods, will form a rich hidden treasure for the emotional, intellectual, and even moral developments of later years. For this reason, childhood constitutes a preponderant part of the educational age, which spans from 7 to 17 years (Pende); with its beginning, it usually marks entry into primary school, since the 6th–7th year is the legal age for beginning elementary studies, while the transition to secondary studies (middle school) is permitted only toward the end of puberty, upon entering adolescence, around 11–12 years of age.
To demonstrate how important childhood is for the acquisition of ideational patrimony, it is noted that by the age of 7, the brain has already reached a weight (1378 g, average) very close to that of an adult (1376 g, average), thus now capable of serving as an instrumental organ for the development of intellectual life.
Educationally and morally, childhood is also crucial. The subject, with the first more intimate relations with the world outside the family (school), begins to form the first circle of acquaintances and gains initial experiences in an environment previously almost unknown, observing and treasuring facts and circumstances that approach him through their novelty; in the contrast of the unfamiliar environment, he begins to feel more distinctly the push of sympathy or aversion; an ever-growing curiosity drives him to seek causal relations, and his mind, following concrete reasoning, begins to formulate abstractions. Accessible to tenderness, desirous of esteem and affection, in school and play he develops his first sense of justice.
In terms of the passions (v.), childhood is dominated by those of the so-called concupiscible appetite, both positively (love, desire, joy) and negatively (hatred, aversion, sorrow), which, in shifting fluctuations, betray the easy variability of his emotional life. Gluttony, intimacy, and acceptance of fraternal bonds often blossom into his faults, more material than formal.
For practical guidance, it is worth noting that the boundaries of childhood, like those of most other ages, can be more clearly marked by changes in dental formula than by the theoretical limits set by the number of years. Indeed, at the beginning of childhood, there is a resumption of the growth of teeth of the vegetative type (the “turgor” phase) with the eruption of the first large permanent molars (the so-called “seven-year molars”) between the 5th and 7th–8th year; the initiation of the shedding of deciduous teeth (medial incisors) occurs between the 6th and 8th year; at the end of childhood, the replacement of deciduous canines (teeth of animal and relational life) with the robust permanent canines takes place around the 10th–12th year of age.
Giuseppe de Nino
II. THE PEDAGOGY OF CHILDHOOD
The data provided by psychology regarding childhood offer pedagogy the opportunity to recall and insist upon certain normative principles aimed at aiding the evolution of personality by leveraging the psychologically formative elements of this age and seeking to avert anything that might cause significant harm in the near future.
1. For intellectual activity
Since the child exhibits a marked realistic tendency, which gives him a special taste for all that is mechanical, constructive technique, and model-making, even in reading he will prefer not fairy tales and legends but adventure stories and novels in which he will favor the adventurous type; travel accounts to lands still shrouded in a cloud of mystery that awaits dissipation. Yet he still lacks critical sense, cannot yet objectively distinguish the true from the invented, and is easily swayed by suggestion and overtaken by subjective interpretations. Hence the need to supervise reading material so that to recreation and instruction there is not added too rapid and premature awakening of morbid instincts, which could lead to fatal consequences.2. For affective activity
The intense biological activity characteristic of this period, in which the two sexes begin to differentiate sharply and take a certain complacent interest in their differing physiological characteristics, has consequences that are no longer indifferent to their mutual behavior and affect boys and girls differently. The boy needs to expend his energy in games involving movement, all the better if they are spurred on by competition and rivalry; he retains for longer the social tendency toward his companions, though he still retains predominantly childish attitudes. The girl, however, who must face puberty considerably earlier than the boy, is influenced by the changes that surprise her and which she does not always understand, and so easily falls into melancholy, sadness, laziness, and listlessness. She is thus more inclined toward a kind of solitude in which she can daydream as she pleases, build castles in the air, and gradually accustom herself to a world that might otherwise awaken in her disgust.Education, therefore, must take on the character of a vigilant but serene and unconstrained art, increasingly rich in understanding and love. A common approach for both boys and girls, in addition to encouraging their studies, will be to keep a watchful eye on the friendships they form or prefer, on the companions they associate with most frequently, and on their diligence and perseverance in study. This is to prevent (or at least correct in good time) serious dangers of deviation or behavior that, on the one hand, might lead to thoughtless gallantry and, on the other, to vain coquetry. In particular, for the boy, a serious concept of life and the future will begin to be instilled in him, one that will demand seriousness and culture from him; for the girl, at the opportune moment and to a greater or lesser extent depending on the situation, an exact concept will be given of the great mission entrusted by God to woman and of the efficacy and strength of healthy femininity, which must know how to keep each person in their proper place and dispel the foolish conviction that woman is nothing but fragility and weakness.
3. For volitional activity
Since in this period there is still no psychological maturity capable of measuring and weighing the consequences of actions and habits, the art of education suggests taking advantage of everything (environment, companionship, reading, recreation) that can help, support, and guide the child. Above all, it is important to educate him to will when it comes to duty; to overcome, from time to time, duty in order to perform even supererogatory actions; and to correct, slowly but surely, those aspects or traits of character that are amiss. The conviction that energy, decisiveness of will, and volition depend solely on nature and not on art—that they are therefore not educable or attainable by all—does not withstand the scrutiny of serious experience. Any character that is initially weak, timid and lazy, uncertain and irresolute, can gradually be led to possess a strong and unshaken will (cf. WILL, EDUCATION OF).4. For religious activity
Religion (both in theory and practice) also provides a program of wonderful efficacy for childhood. The child is already capable, if properly adapted, of understanding the principal and deepest truths of Christianity, the life of grace within him, the respect that derives from it for his own soul and body, and the efficacy of the Sacraments. He can appreciate the beautiful Gospel and hagiographic narratives, understand the love of Jesus, and even respond to it with sublime acts of heroism. The history of martyrs and missions provides many examples in this regard. Hence the insistence that religious instruction be imparted from the earliest years. Hence, too, the importance of profound religious instruction for parents themselves, so that they may instill it in the hearts and minds of their children. The art with which they will one day exercise it, deriving as it does, so to speak, from blood and life shared, is something that can hardly be matched by the art of external teachers and instructors.III. THEOLOGY OF CHILDHOOD
The recent beatifications of children and adolescents have raised a psychological question: is heroic virtue possible in a child after the use of reason?In other words, can a child know and love God heroically, assess a renunciation, understand its scope, overcome and triumph over tendencies and age-related limitations solely out of love for God, whom he wishes to please alone? And can he so exercise himself in the field of Christian theological and cardinal virtues as to acquire a virtuous habit that enables him to act above the common standard?
Among the opposing opinions recently expressed, the view of those who answer affirmatively seems more logical.
Divine grace, by illuminating the intellect and strengthening the will, can enable a soul to perform heroic actions with full awareness, in a sense anticipating for that soul, through the faculties of the soul itself, the time of normal development. Tender age is no obstacle to the marvelous effects of grace, of any grace, of the gifts of the Holy Spirit—those endowments that God always grants to those whom He wills to be saints.
If it is admitted—and facts confirm it—that children have performed extraordinary actions at a tender age, with an openness of mind and mastery of will that would befit only mature men (e.g., Mozart, Leopardi, etc.), how can we not admit that this may occur through the omnipotent action of God the Creator, who always operates while respecting the freedom of the creature? If marvels occur in the natural order, there is no reason to consider them impossible in the spiritual order.
It should also be borne in mind that an act of heroism in a child may consist of a lesser degree of heroism than that required of an adult. Renouncing a game, a sweet, or sitting still at a table can reach the relative heroism of virtue if done out of love for God.
Indirectly, this possibility can be demonstrated by the sad reality of children who are already masters of vice and refined in sin. If, therefore, a child’s soul can be clothed in the habit of vice, why should it not, through the intervention of grace and divine virtue, be clothed in the garment of the highest virtue? If by nature man, whether young or old, is drawn to evil, by grace he is, if he corresponds, drawn almost to good. Just as the present age in particular provides the world with depraved children, so too the Church, God who acts within it, presents great child souls raised to the glory of the altars, true heroes—examples in the 20th century being Maria Goretti, the Saint of the Jubilee Year 1950, and also Domenico Savio, though here we are already at the dawn of adolescence.
Even apart from this possibility, children may privately be invoked as blessed intercessors if they died after Baptism before attaining the use of reason. For such propitiatory ends, as well as for the purpose of honor and thanksgiving, the Holy Sacrifice of the Mass may be offered, inasmuch as spiritual and temporal benefits are sought from the Lord through their intercession. From this it follows that for them the Mass for the Dead should not be said, but either the Mass of the day or, if the rite permits, the Mass of the Angels, or even the Mass for the Dead but applied for all the faithful departed.
IV. CHILDREN AND THE CHURCH
The Church has always exercised a maternal mission of protection toward children, promoting works of education and redemption; it vigilantly ensures that they are instructed in Christian truths and receive the Holy Sacraments. In this, too, it follows in the footsteps of the Divine Master, who accorded children the highest esteem, contrary to the rules or at least the practice of the pagan world, where a child was accepted only insofar as he promised to become a useful citizen to society. The parallel Gospel passages of Mt 19:13–15; Mk 10:13–16; Lk 18:15–19, which depict Jesus embracing children, are marked by an eloquence and freshness that captivate. The Greek word (τὰ ἀληθῶς) especially suggests the very youngest children, infants, in whom certain qualities of pre-moral innocence are most evident—symbols of another intentional innocence, the fruit of struggle and combat against evil, known yet not admitted. All this justifies the appeal to childhood as a symbol of certain amiable qualities, above all docility and humility, which is the subject of another parallel Gospel passage, Mt 18:1–5; Mk 9:32–36; Lk 9:46–48; and it also explains the harshness of language used by Jesus Himself against those who corrupt children, so much so that, though so gentle, He declared that it would be better for such a person to have a millstone tied around his neck and be drowned in the sea rather than to cause “one of these little ones” to stumble (Mt 18:6, 10; Mk 9:41; Lk 17:2).Jesus does not overlook the defects proper to children. For example, He takes as a starting point certain childish caprices manifested in their games to rail against the scribes and Pharisees (Lk 7:31–34; Mt 11:16–19). Yet in His eyes, with a just assessment, these defects are outweighed by their virtues, and He gladly sees them at His side, receiving from them simple and spontaneous homage, an echo of the very voice of God (Mt 21:15–16); and He points to them as the subjects of His preaching and that of those who wish to be His disciples. Hence He declares that any benefit done to any one of them is done to Himself (Mt 18:5).
There are not a few works destined for the benefit of children that have arisen in the Church in response to this invitation of Jesus—works linked to religious Orders and institutes, as well as isolated initiatives born of the generous impulse of individuals and organizations. Perhaps this is one of the most beautiful pages in the history of the Church. Among the initiatives that silent and fruitful experience has already tested in this field, the names of St. Ignatius, St. Joseph Calasanz, St. John Bosco, and many others stand out—too many to enumerate here.
The Church has always jealously claimed for itself and for the family this educative mission, which occupies a prominent place in ecclesiastical teaching (v. TEACHING, FREEDOM OF; SCHOOL, FREEDOM OF; cf. the encyclical Divini illius Magistri of Pius XI, 31 Dec. 1929).
V. CHILDREN AND ECCLESIASTICAL LEGISLATION
The fruit of the teachings of the Divine Master, of a thousand years of pedagogical experience, and of psychological inquiry is also the ecclesiastical legislation concerning children.The term puer, synonymous with infans and parvulus according to can. 88 § 3, would seem to be reserved for the child before the age of seven, while the term impubes (impubere) is taken in a specific sense to denote the child from seven to fourteen years of age if male, and to twelve if female.
Yet the terminology of the Code is not always consistent, and the term puer is often used in a broader sense to indicate the child in general before puberty (cf. can. 1331, 1353).
From birth to the age of seven, the child (infans, the term more commonly used in this specific sense) is presumed not to have the use of reason (non sui compos); the contrary presumption holds after the age of seven (can. 88 § 3): in either case, the presumption is not absolute (praesumptio iuris tantum). Although it is fitting to bring children to observe ecclesiastical laws in good time, before the age of seven there are no strict obligations, unless otherwise stipulated (can. 12), especially in the case of ecclesiastical laws that interpret divine law: thus, as soon as they attain the use of reason and are properly instructed, they are bound to receive Baptism (can. 752 in relation to can. 745 § 2 n. 2), Easter Communion (can. 859), the sacrament of Penance (can. 906; Pontifical Commission, 3 Jan. 1918, in Monitor Ecclesiasticus 43 [1918]: 112), Viaticum (can. 854 § 2), and Extreme Unction (can. 940). Regarding the obligation of Confession and Communion before the age of seven, see in particular COMMUNION.
Children, even before attaining the use of reason, can validly (though illicitly, for the minister) receive the sacrament of Holy Orders, whereas they are incapable of giving matrimonial consent or consent to any contract in full.
For they are incapable of a human act. Until they attain full use of reason, they are also incapable of making any valid vow (can. 1307 § 2).
Morally speaking, children are culpable according to the degree of their use of reason. Where there is no use of reason, there is no sin, no delict, and no penalty (can. 240 § 1). In the penal sphere, children, in proportion to their age, are considered capable of sin, of malice, and of the corresponding penalties (can. 2304); yet they are never subject to latae sententiae penalties (can. 2230), but only to corrective and educational punishments that are ferendae sententiae.
Many other legal provisions concern children without directly obliging them. There is an obligation to confer Baptism on them (can. 745 § 2 n. 3 V. BAPTISM); the same obligation cannot be affirmed for Confirmation (v. which, for liceity, must be conferred after the use of reason: can. 756). There is likewise an obligation to instruct them in Christian doctrine before and after First Communion (can. 467 § 1, 1330, 1331), to care for them in a particular way, directing them toward piety and study if they show signs of an ecclesiastical vocation (can. 1353), and to bury them, if possible, in a portion of the cemetery reserved for them if they die before the age of seven (can. 1209 § 3). For them, distinct funeral rites are also prescribed by the Church (Rituale Romanum, tit. IV, cap. 6), which manifests more joy than sorrow for their eternal salvation.
If, however, they die before attaining the use of reason without Baptism (regarding their final destiny, V. LIMBO), the Mass cannot be applied for them, since the Holy Sacrifice of the Eucharist would avail them nothing. For children who die after attaining the use of reason, the norms of common law for all the faithful apply if they were baptized; for the unbaptized, the norms for the unbaptized.
The Church further recommends that the confessor make extensive use of questioning with the young, and therefore with children, regarding the matter of the sixth precept of the Decalogue (can. 888 § 2), even at the expense of the integrity of the confession (cf. Sacred Congregation of the Holy Office, Norms of 16 May 1943). There exists a prohibition against introducing women of any age (and thus also girls) into the cloister of religious orders, and anyone (including boys and girls) into the cloister of nuns (can. 598 § 1, 600, and 2342).
For crimes against children and the treatment of children in antiquity, V. Espositi; Infantino; Infanzia Abbandonata; for the grave responsibility of their corruption, V. MINORANZE NAZIONALI. For children in the Crusades, V. Crociate; for children offered to monasteries, V. Oblati; for child labor, V. Lavoro.