SYNAGOGUE. - A place of "assembly" for prayer and sacred reading in post-exilic Judaism. The Greek term συναγωγή ("assembly") in the Septuagint mostly translates the Hebrew words 'ēdhāh and qāhāl, which have no relation to a place of prayer; only in late times did such a place come to be called a s.
In New Testament times, the Greek term προσευχή = "house of prayer" was used in this sense (cf. Acts 16:13; Philo, Legatio ad Caium, 165; Juvenal, Sat. III, 269; Flavius Josephus, Antiq. Jud., XIV, 258); while the term s. was used to mean a group of Jews organized for particular purposes, similar to a collegium. In one and the same city there could be several s. (cf. Acts 6:9); in the Jewish community of Rome at the beginning of the common era there were at least 13, each distinguished by a special name with reference to benefactors, the neighborhood, ethnic characteristics, etc. Each of these s. had its own place of prayer (προσευχή), to which the term s. was later reserved, at first generic (Heb. bêth hênêseth; Aramaic bêth hênlîtâ, or simply hênlîtâ).
The rise of the s. marked a notable revolution in Judaism. To the single Temple of Jerusalem were joined these centers of a more individual and more interior piety. Since it was impossible to offer sacrifices outside the Temple, there people prayed, studied the Law, and fostered the love of an ever more perfect life. The origin of the s. is not known; but they must already have been functioning during the Babylonian exile (587-538 B.C.). At Schedia near Alexandria the presence of such a building is attested as early as the time of Ptolemy II Euergetes (264-221 B.C.); and without doubt several arose in Egypt (cf. Enoch 46:8; 52:6). But the oldest archaeological remains known thus far do not go back beyond the 2nd century. Among the oldest and most representative are those of the s. of Sejb Abrêq, of Capernaum, of Dura Europos, of Bejt Alfah, of Bethshan, of Jericho, of 'Ajn Dûq, of Gerasa, of Chorazin, of Emath, of Kefr Bir'im, of Aleppo.
From the architectural standpoint one cannot speak of a uniform type or of a synagogal style. Originally the s. was indistinguishable from an ordinary room or hall; the only particular feature was an ark (Heb. 'ârôn haq-qôdhes) for keeping the scrolls of Scripture. In the 3rd century the ark was replaced by a chest or cabinet (Heb. têbhâh), fixed in a wall or in the apse. Under the influence of Christian architecture, the s. often took the basilical form, in which, in place of the altar, there is the cabinet for the sacred scrolls. The whole apse was often separated from the rest by a curtain. For ornamental purposes, near the cabinet there are usually two seven-branched candelabra and, sometimes, decorations of animals or plants. The remainder was generally very simple; but examples of paintings and mosaics have been found not only with motifs drawn from nature (animals, plants, signs of the zodiac, etc.), but also with representations of figures famous in Judaism, as happened in the s. of Dura Europos (v.). Later, however, every figure was avoided. The orientation of the building toward Jerusalem, even if it appears very frequent, cannot be considered an absolute rule. The podium or pulpit for the reading of the Bible, the stone seats or benches for the choir and for persons of distinction, are common to Christian churches and to s. The first, called bêmâh by its Greek term, seems to have been the "chair of Moses" in New Testament times (cf. Mt. 23:2); the second constituted the places of honor (Greek πρωτοκαθεδρία; Mt. 23:6), while those along the walls were for everyone. The women's gallery, reserved for women, is fairly common; while the presence of a narthex is much rarer.
The community was responsible for worship and synagogue prayer. Since there was no priestly body with an official function, individuals specially prepared served as leaders of worship, called rabbis (v.) from the Middle Ages onward, since it was not easy to find among the ordinary faithful persons qualified for the reading or the chanting of Hebrew texts. In antiquity there is mention only of an archisynagogos (Mk. 5:22; Lk. 13:14; Acts 13:15; 18:8), called in Hebrew rôf bêth hak-hênêseth, whose task it was to direct the meetings, and of a minister or attendant (Lk. 4:20), called in Hebrew hazzân and in Greek ὕπρετῆς, who not infrequently also took charge of the children's school, almost always attached to the sacred building. The s. was a place of prayer and of instruction. The first purpose was achieved by the recitation of formulas, which were soon fixed with precision, such as the Sêmâ and the Sêmâneh 'eirêh, and by the singing of the Psalms. The reading of biblical passages, which in the earliest period seem to have been left to the choice of the archisynagogos or of the reader (Lk. 4:16), but which later were determined in a pericope from the Pentateuch (pârâsâh) and one from the "Prophets" (haphjârâh), offered occasions for a pious elevation of the mind to God or gave instruction concerning the moral conduct to be followed. This last characteristic was often emphasized by some doctor of the Law or by a simple listener, who commented on the text read or exhorted his coreligionists in general. Both Jesus (cf. Mt. 4:23; Lk. 4:16 ff.; 13:10) and his disciples (Acts 9:20; 13:5, 14; 14:1; 17:1, 17; 18:4, 19, 26; 19:8) took advantage of this custom to spread the new doctrine. The meetings took place on the Sabbath (Lk. 13:10; Acts 18:4) and on feast days; but later there were assemblies also daily. The s. was the center of the various Jewish communities, especially in the diaspora. Its builders were considered benefactors of the whole group (cf. Lk. 7, 4), while the removal of a Jew from this place of common prayer was regarded as a grave punishment (cf. Jn. 9, 22; 12, 42; 16, 2).
Bibliography10 works
Angelo Penna
ARCHAEOLOGY
Besides the numerous epigraphic mentions of synagogues, archaeological explorations have also brought to light the ancient buildings used as synagogues.
At Hamman-Lif (Tunisia), between 1883 and 1884, a synagogue was found consisting of a hall measuring 9 x 5.25 m, with a mosaic floor decorated partly with animals among vine branches, partly with fish and ducks, and partly with a two-handled jar approached by two peacocks; the field is bordered by two date palms. In the center is placed the inscription: « Sancta Sinagoga Naron(itana) pro salutem suam ancilla tua Iulia Nap. de suo proprium teselavit ». The epigraph is enclosed between two medallions with the seven-branched candelabrum (with seven arms); on the left are also the etrog and the lulab. In a second hall, also in the mosaic floor, is the inscription « Asterius filius Rustici arcosinagogi Margaritari d(omus) D(e)i paterni portici tesselavit ». In a third room, likewise in the mosaic floor, one reads: « Istrumenta servi tui Naritanus; Istrumenta servi tui Amaroni ». It was held, on the basis of the epigraph, that in this room the scrolls of the Thorah were kept. Explorations carried out in 1908-1909 brought to light several terracotta lamps with the seven-branched candelabrum. In 1916 H. Kohl and C. Watzinger published the explorations of sixteen synagogues of the 2nd or 3rd century A.D., namely of Tell Hüm (Capernaum), Keräzeh (Chorazin), Irbid (Arbela), Umm-el 'Amad, Meron, Kefr Bir'im, en-Nebratajn, el-Giš (Gischala) in Galilee; of ed-Dikkeh and Umm el-Kanätir in Transjordan, of Hirbet Semmakah, on Mount Carmel. In the synagogue of Noarah some inscriptions in Hebrew-Aramaic commemorate the collaborators, as, for example: « to the good memory of Beniamin Phinees son of Joseph. May they also be in happy memory, those who have associated themselves, have collaborated with gifts or have taken part in the work for this holy place; fortunate people, people of good will, people of every condition; may there be granted to them, if it pleases God, their portion in this holy place. Amen »; again: « to the good memory of the priest Pinchas, son of Iosbah, who gave with his money the price of the mosaic and the roof » (Revue biblique, 30 [1921], p. 581); « to the good memory of Khalifon daughter of the rabbi Safrah who collaborated on this holy place. Amen » (loc. cit.). « May they be in happy memory, all those who have associated themselves and have given or will give for this holy place either gold, or silver, or no matter what value. May they not lose their contribution in this holy place. Amen » (ibid., 28 [1919], p. 540).
The synagogue of Bejt-Alfah, in the Valley west of the Jordan and south of Mount Thabor, was discovered in 1929; the building, as a whole, measures 27.70 x 14.20 m; the assembly hall, measuring 10.75 x 12.40 m, is divided into three naves by two rows of quadrangular pillars. The ark containing the scroll of the law and the seven-branched candelabrum stood in the apse. At the second column to the east was the bema, raised, where the rabbi read the law. The entire floor of the central nave was decorated with mosaic. In the part nearest the apse was represented the holy ark (drōn haq-qābēi) between two seven-branched candelabra and the symbols of the Jewish cult, namely the lulab, the etrog, the sacred horn, the case containing the scroll of the law. The drōn is surmounted by a triangular pediment and at the two corners are placed two birds; guarding the ark are represented two lions with gaping jaws. In the center of the mosaic are represented the twelve signs of the zodiac, with their names in Hebrew, around the solar chariot; at the corners are the symbols of the four seasons. Below is represented the sacrifice of Abraham, according to the biblical text with the two servants (Gen. 22, 3), the ass, a ram caught in the tree and the words in Hebrew « and behold a ram » (ibid. 22, 12); above Abraham, distinguished with his name in Greek, is the divine hand that stops him and the words likewise in Hebrew « do not lay your hand »; (ibid. 22, 13); nearby are Isaac with his name in Hebrew and the altar lit for the sacrifice. The mosaic border surrounding the aforementioned representations contains birds and animals; a basket of fruit, bunches of grapes, geometric decorations and two inscriptions, one in Greek and the other in Aramaic.
In the synagogue of Noarah a mosaic was found with Daniel in the lions' den; in that of Geraš in Transjordan, the coming out of the animals from the ark; there were represented Shem and Japheth with their names in Greek and certainly the other members of Noah's family.
As for the synagogue of Dura: v. DURA EUROPOS.
Bibliography22 works
Enrico Josi
