Paraguay

PARAGUAY. - I. GEOGRAPHY. - The less vast (407,000 sq. km.) of the two landlocked states of South America, enclosed between Brazil, Argentina and Bolivia. The territory, almost entirely flat, falls within the Paraná-Paraguay basin, which with their tributaries (Ipané, Jejuy, Tebicuary) constitutes an excellent network of navigable waterways.

The territory lends itself well to both agriculture and livestock raising, has great forest resources (29% of the surface area) and fair mining possibilities (iron, manganese, copper), but its development is slowed by the burden of its international communications and by the general deficiency of internal roads. Among crops, for climatic reasons, subtropical ones prevail (sugar cane, cotton, tobacco), as well as maize, cassava and rice; among fruits, citrus fruits (notable is the oily essence of petit grain extracted from the leaves of the orange tree); the cultivation of the vine was recently introduced. Livestock raising has also made progress (3.4 million head of cattle). Timber and yerba mate enter exports in substantial quantities. Industry is modest and of local importance.

Of the 1.4 million inhabitants (3 per sq. km.) two-thirds are Amerindians, and slightly less than one-third are mestizos; less than one-tenth are whites. The capital Asunción (250,000 inhabitants) is the only important population center. The Catholic religion is by far the dominant one; however, pagans are also numerous. P. is a unitary republic (comprising 17 departments), governed by a president, an elected chamber and a council of State chosen by the president.

Giuseppe Caraci

II. HISTORY

After the continent had been sighted by Sebastian Cabot when the navigator briefly sailed up the Paraná-Paraguay, effective penetration was begun in 1536 by Juan de Ayolas, who built the fort of Corpus Christi at the place where in 1541 the capital Asunción would rise. The region that depended on Buenos Aires was divided into encomiendas, similarly to what was done in the other regions subject to the crown of Castile.

During the course of the 17th century, the Consejo de las Indias separated Paraguay proper, with its capital Asunción, from the provinces of the Rio de la Plata. On the basis of precise instructions from Madrid, local government was entrusted to democratically constituted councils, in which, besides the Spaniards, mestizos and natives took part, and these, animated by the desire and the will to improve and make their cities prosper, did not let themselves be cast down by the difficulties they encountered one after another, and were in this way the architects of the complete development of their country (v. RIDUZIONI).

The last "revolution of the communes," the most complex, broke out in 1725 and ended in 1739; it was provoked by the clash of interests between the Communes and the Missions organized as autonomous formations.

After the governor Diego de los Reyes Balmaceda (protector of the Missions) had been replaced, by popular outcry, with José de Antequera y Castro, with the support of the juntas of the major centers, in 1725, the insurgents expelled from Asunción the Jesuits who were there in the colleges, beginning a veritable struggle against the Missions, going so far as fighting in the streets and the countryside. The situation, always tense, especially on the part of the Paraguayans, who did not passively submit to a series of oppressive measures of the viceroy of Lima, if it ended, from the point of view war, in 1739, had its true end only in 1768 with the expulsion of the Jesuits from P.

When the insurrectionary movement of the provinces of the Río de la Plata against Spain began in the early years of the 19th century, and Buenos Aires proclaimed itself independent (25 May 1810), the Paraguayans too wanted complete independence while remaining on good terms with neighboring Buenos Aires. Faced with such a determined attitude, the Argentine army, under the orders of Manoel Belgrano, invaded P. in Sept. 1810; but, at the beginning of 1811, it was forced to leave the country. Having achieved its proposed aim, the general governing junta assembled, for the first time, on 18 May. Once complete independence from Spain and the policy of good neighborliness with Argentina had been sanctioned — which was accepted by Buenos Aires with the Treaty of 12 Oct. 1811 — the Congress adjourned. Two years later, in 1813, it assembled again, decreeing the notification and ratification of independence, the adoption of the name Republic of P., the drafting of a regulation of government, the transfer of executive power to two consuls, namely Gastone Rodriguez Francia and Fulgenzio Yegros. With 1814, however, the dictatorship of Francia began, lasting until his death (1840). Always fearing a possible war against Argentina, Francia reformed the army, removing from office the officials who did not follow his directives. Despite his anticlerical and isolationist policy, he brought some benefit to the country.

But what Francia and his successor Carlo Antonio Lopez had usefully accomplished was gravely compromised by Francisco Solano Lopez. During the time when F. S. Lopez held power (1862-70), the war between P. and Argentina-Brazil-Uruguay took place. The war ended with the victory of the South American triple alliance, despite some Paraguayan successes: Lopez, who had resorted to every kind of intimidation and to continual acts of cruelty against those who, understanding the futility of the struggle, sought to reach peace in time, and who had raged especially against the clergy and had even had Bishop Palacios de Bergas shot under the accusation of participation in a conspiracy against him, fell at the head of his men, at Cerro Corá on 1 March 1870.

Slow and laborious was the recovery of P., for which the agreements with Argentina and with Brazil proved very useful as regards economic life. While the Republic was setting about recovering, despite internal conflicts between the colorado party (conservative) and the liberal-radical one, the question of the Bolivian Chaco arose, in confrontation with Bolivia (1880). The latter, basing itself on the fact that the Chaco region had been within its jurisdiction, had claimed it during the colonial era. Every attempt at agreement having proved vain, in Dec. 1928 the armed conflict between the two States began, in the Chaco itself. The Pan-American Congress first, the League of Nations later sought a peaceful solution, but they did not succeed in preventing, in 1930, the resumption of hostilities which continued, with varying fortunes, until the end of 1934, when, with the mediation of Argentina, Brazil, Peru and Uruguay, an armistice was reached in June 1935 and then the definitive Treaty of peace signed at Buenos Ayres on 21 July 1938, which recognized P.'s claim to most of the Chaco.

Following the Japanese-American war, P., besides proclaiming its solidarity with the U.S.A., broke off relations with the nations of the Tripartite Pact (1942), managing in this way to enjoy a period of internal calm (1942-44) by reason of North American aid and of the war orders placed with the Republic. Once the war ended, things gradually returned to their former state, and until Apr. 1948 one witnesses a succession of revolts, plots and coups d'état among the various parties (worth remembering is the guion rojo = "red banner," an offshoot of the colorado party). The current president, for the period 1949-54, is Dr. Federico Chaves.

Nardo Naldoni

III. EVANGELIZATION

The first missionaries in the territory of present-day Paraguay were the Franciscans, who under governor Domingo Martínez de Irala (1538-1542) began the evangelization of the Indians. Likewise the first bishop of the diocese of Asunción, created in 1547, was the Franciscan Pedro de la Torre. Especially beneficial was the activity of Fr. Luis Bolaños, a Franciscan, among the Guaraní Indians; over the course of 30 years and more he gathered the Indians into reductions (v.) and wrote the first catechism in the Guaraní language.

In 1585 the Jesuits arrived in the territory of La Plata, founding in 1606 the province of Paraguay, comprising, besides present-day Paraguay, Argentina, Uruguay, southern Brazil and at first also part of Chile. Their principal activity developed from 1610 among the Guayas and Guaraní Indians, founding there the famous reductions (v.). Frs. Roque Gonzalez, Alonso Rodriguez and Juan del Castillo suffered martyrdom in 1628 (beatified in 1934 by Pius XI), but despite this the Jesuits continued to work with great success among the various Indian tribes, gathering them into villages governed by the missionaries. The raids of the Paulistas (1628-41) destroyed the reductions of the Guayas and the Tapi. Subsequently the Indian villages were gathered along the rivers Paraná and Uruguay (in present-day Paraguay, the Brazilian state of Río Grande do Sul, the state of Misiones in Argentina), thus forming a separate geographical entity, which because of its isolation and its special government was often called the Jesuit State of Paraguay. In the 18th century the Jesuits extended their missionary and reduction activity to other tribes west of the Paraná, to the Chiquitos, the Mocabios, the Tobas, the Abiponi. In 1767 the Jesuits were expelled. The administration of the reductions passed into the hands of the Spaniards, the spiritual direction to the Franciscans. But many Indians took refuge once again in the forests; and in 1796 the former Jesuit State, which at its apogee, that is in 1731, had numbered 141,242 souls, was reduced to 45,000.

The border wars between Spain and Portugal, the proclamation of Paraguayan independence in 1811, the dictatorship of José Gaspar Rodríguez de Francia (1811-40), who in 1823 abolished the convents, deposed the bishop and arrogated to himself the appointment of all ecclesiastics, and the bloody war under Francisco Solano Lopez (1862-70) brought immense damage to the ecclesiastical life of Paraguay and completely destroyed missionary activity among the Indians not yet converted. The Statute of 1870 proclaimed the Catholic religion the religion of the State.

IV. ECCLESIASTICAL ORGANIZATION

It currently comprises, according to the Annuario Pontificio 1952, 1 metropolitan see with 2 suffragan sees, 2 apostolic vicariates.

1. Metropolitan: S.MA ASSUNZIONE (1547), also known by the name of Paraguay; S.MA CONCEZIONE IN PARAGUAY (1 May 1929 under the name of Concezione and Chaco, name changed on 16 July 1949); VILLARICA (1 May 1929).

2. Apostolic vicariates: CHACO PARAGUAYANO (11 March 1948), PILCOMAYO (14 July 1950).

Giovanni Rommerskirchen

V. THE BLESSED MARTYRS OF PARÁ

They are the three Jesuits: Roque González de Santa Cruz, Alfonso Rodríguez, and Juan del Castillo, killed for the faith in the "reduction" of Todos los Santos of Caaró on 15 and 17 Nov. 1628.

R. González, born of a family of ancient Spanish conquerors, at Asunción (P.) in 1576, studied at the College of the Jesuits of that same city and, ordained a priest in 1598 or 1599, was elected there as parish priest of the Cathedral. Having entered the Society of Jesus in 1609, he succeeded in 1611 Fr. M. Lorenzana in organizing and completing the first of all the "Guarani reductions," founded in 1609, of S. Ignacio-Guazú. From there González expanded his work as pioneer, explorer and founder of 10 new reductions in the regions of the P., Paraná, and Uruguay: St. Anne, Itapúa (1615), and Yaguapúa (1618) on the banks of the Paraná; Concepción (1620), St. Nicholas, St. Francis Xavier and Yapeyú or St. Mary of the Three Kings (1626); Candelaria of Caazapamini, Asunción del Iyui and Todos los Santos of Caaró (1628) along the banks of the Uruguay. All this heroic and difficult work excited and sharpened the hatred of the sorcerers, who saw themselves dethroned and therefore conspired for his death. González was in fact killed with two blows of an axe, while, in the last reduction, founded 15 days earlier, he was preparing to raise a bell on some tree trunks (15 Nov. 1628); almost immediately afterward they struck Fr. A. Rodríguez and two days later Fr. G. del Castillo. The heart of Fr. González, torn from his breast and pierced by an arrow, and thrown onto the flames (because the father, according to the Relación de la gloriosa muerte... per el p. Provincial Vasquez Trujillo al p. Mucio Vitelleschi, in Blanco, op. cit. in bibl., pp. 494-495, the day after his death would have reproached his executioners) was instead found intact and as such is still preserved today in the college of the Savior in Buenos Aires. Several letters of González survive, published in the "Annue" of the P., and a catechism in Guarani.

Fr. A. Rodríguez, born at Zamora (Spain) on 10 March 1598, was a novice at Villagarcía in 1614; a missionary in the P. from 1619. Fr. G. del Castillo, born at Belmonte (Spain) on 14 Sept. 1566, was a novice at Madrid in 1614 and a missionary in the P. from 1619. The three martyrs were beatified on 28 Jan. 1934. Feast on 17 Nov.

Celestino Testore

VI. RELATIONS BETWEEN CHURCH AND STATE

Relations between Church and State are now regulated by the constitution in force (10 July 1940), which in this part still draws on regalist theories, thereby sanctioning their defects and abusive rights, such as the appointment of bishops. Article 51, in fact, clearly and broadly affirms the national Patronage of the Republic with regard to the presentation of bishops by the president of the Republic and the granting of the exsequatur to the decrees of councils, to bulls, briefs and rescripts of the Supreme Pontiff. However, the positive aspects of the same must not be passed over in silence, founded as they are on the recognition of Catholicism as the religion of almost all citizens.

The preamble begins in the name of God Almighty, supreme legislator of the universe.

The Catholic religion is declared the "religion of the State" (art. 3); the other cults, provided they are not contrary to morality and public order, are "tolerated", and a decree of 13 April 1945, no. 8219, limited their exercise to within their respective temples or places designated for that purpose by the national authorities.

The head of State must profess the Catholic religion (art. 46) and, on assuming the high office, must swear before God and the fatherland. The metropolitan archbishop is an ex officio member of the Council of State, which replaces the senate (art. 62). The archbishop and the bishops must be Paraguayan citizens (art. 3). As for the family, the constitution contains no provisions contrary to Christian morality, nor does it directly deny the rights of the Catholic Church. Article 22 is indirectly contrary to divorce. Articles 10-11, in dealing with education, do not mention religious instruction, but neither do they exclude it, since they speak of moral and spiritual education. In state schools, in any case, religious teaching is lacking. The government regularly pays the allowances fixed for the archbishop and the bishops, for the vicars general, for the secretaries of the episcopal curias and for the Seminary. In addition to these fixed payments, government financial aid for the erection and restoration of churches is frequent. The clergy is exempt from military service.

The Republic of P. maintains diplomatic relations with the Holy See. In modern times, these go back to 1920, when the apostolic nuncio in Argentina was also accredited as inter-nuncio to P.; in August 1930, on the occasion of the erection of the ecclesiastical province of P., the pontifical representation was raised to a nunciature. For a brief period (1939-41) the nunciature of P. was united with that of Uruguay, both being separated from that of Argentina. Finally, on 21 August 1941 a permanent nunciature was installed in Asunción. Only in 1948 did the government decree the creation of a Legation of P. to the Holy See.

VII. SCHOOL SYSTEM

The Paraguayan Constitution provides for freedom of teaching, the right of parents over the education of their children, freedom of conscience and instruction in any religion. Private individuals are guaranteed the right to found schools, and therefore the Catholic Church as well. Attendance at elementary school is free and compulsory from 7 to 14 years of age. Public schools are informed by the pedagogical doctrines of Pestalozzi, Sarmiento, Ferrière, Kerschensteiner, Dewey, Washburne and James. The State seeks, through the National Council of Education, the Ministry of Justice, Worship and Public Instruction, the Ministry of Agriculture and the Ministry of War, to reduce the number of illiterates, to spread general, rural and practical instruction by encouraging the establishment of practical rural schools and of evening schools and courses. Primary instruction is given in 1742 primary schools, secondary instruction in 14 national colleges, higher instruction in the Ateneo Paraguayo (normal school), in the Higher School of Agriculture and in the National University of Asunción founded in the year 1929.

The education of the Catholic clergy is provided for in the Seminario de la S.ma Asunción in the capital.