crossing the two strokes: often the circle is surmounted by a small eye; q has a characteristic appearance that is connected with the uppercase letter; t likewise has the form of a circle, surmounted by a wavy horizontal stroke. In the eleventh century, the influence of Carolingian minuscule, which also makes itself felt in the papal chancery, though through a slower process than in the imperial chancery, brings about evident modifications in the c. of the papal curia, to which the use of parchment, replacing papyrus from the pontificate of Benedict VIII (1012–14), is not unrelated. In this second
phase one observes a reduction in the size of c., which in the preceding period towered above the other letters (except, naturally, those with a shaft rising above the line); g assumes the form with a rounded head; the final strokes of m and n generally display a curve at the bottom toward the right. This script survives until Paschal II (1099–1118), but Carolingian minuscule had already been introduced into the papal chancery under Clement II (1046–1047): indeed, one can note the differing use of the two scripts according to whether the document was drawn up by a Roman or a foreign scribe. In the twelfth century, under Callistus II (1119–24), papal documents display a script that, alongside the forms of Carolingian minuscule, preserves certain characteristic elements (open a, the si and ti ligatures) of the ancient curial script; but already under his successor, Honorius II (1124–30), these survivals disappear entirely. The c. then assimilates itself to Carolingian minuscule, while displaying characteristic distortions, similar to those found in imperial diplomas (to which the typical ct ligature may be added). With the thirteenth century, the strokes begin to appear thicker and less rounded, until the bollatica script develops from cursive Gothic (v.).
The name does not predate the ninth century, when we first find the dignity of the cancellarius (v. CANCELLIERE) elevated to the direction of this office; but the structure of the medieval c. is directly and continuously connected with that of the Eastern Roman Empire,
which, in turn, was modeled on the c. of the Roman court. The first emperors must simply have made use of one of their secretaries and of some scribes of servile status: Augustus, who for a certain time personally attended to the handling of both private and official correspondence, tried to have Horace in his retinue, so that he might assist him “in epistulis scribendis,” but was refused (Suetonius, Vita Horat.). In the age of Hadrian, however, we find a c. already constituted, whose offices were headed by various praefecti, drawn from the equestrian order. With the subsequent equalization of the two ordines, equestrian and sena-
The organization of the Byzantine imperial chancery was adopted by the Romano-barbarian rulers: notarii and referendarii are found, with approximately the same duties, among the Ostrogoths, the Lombards (where, however, the referendarii appear only rarely and without their responsibilities being precisely ascertainable), and the Merovingians. Under the latter, the maior domus acquired a pre-eminent position, to such an extent that one of these officials, Pipino, would assume royal power and initiate the Carolingian dynasty (752). Pipino il Breve, and even more so Carlomagno, introduced an important transformation into the chancery, drawing its personnel exclusively from the ecclesiastical order and dividing them into two categories: the notarii, whose task was to compose or dictate the document, and the scriptores, who attended to the physical drafting of the acts. It was during this period that the head of the office came to be the cancellarius, who signed the document.
THE IMPERIAL CHANCERY. — With the foundation of the Holy Roman Empire, an imperial chancery was also reconstituted in the West, retaining the organization of that of the Carolingian kings. The title of the person presiding over this office does not appear to have been consistent: in the documents he is designated at times as the notarius, at times as the protonotarius, at times as the cancellarius, and sometimes also as the magister. It also happens that different designations are found in the text and in the subscription of the same act. Nevertheless, the office of notarius is distinct from that of cancellarius, and subordinate to the latter. Under Ludovico II, son of Lotario I, the title of archicancellarius appears for the first time, applied to the subdeacon Dructemiro (851–61), previously a notarius in Lotario’s chancery: a highly significant development, because the archchancellor gradually came to be transformed into a court function. No less innovative was the action of Ludovico II the German, son of Ludovico the Pious and king of Germany from 843 to 876, who in 854 placed the archchaplain Grimoldo, formerly abbot of Weissenburg and subsequently of S. Gallo, at the nominal head of the chancery. This precedent, which was later widely followed, contributed on the one hand still further to transforming the chancery’s directing office into a court function, while on the other it brought about a certain change in the internal structure of the chancery itself. For although relations between the chapel and the chancery had already been close (the chaplains were, among other things, custodians of the royal archive), and although the archchaplains never intervened deeply in the administration of the chancery, it is natural that particular directives issued by the same person to both offices should have tended to standardize their structure, modifying one by modeling it on the other.
Under Ottone I, the practice arose of dividing the chancery according to the various regions of the empire: in 962, alongside a chancery for Germany, a chancery for Italy was thus created, and in the 11th century, under Enrico III, another was added for Burgundia. At times a single archchancellor, who was also archchaplain, supervised two chanceries; more often the offices were distinct and entrusted to various bishops of the empire. Over time, however, they tended to become attached to a particular see, and beginning with Lotario di Supplinburg, the archchancellorship of Germany was assigned to the archbishop of Mainz, while that of Italy was assigned to the archbishop of Cologne. Under Enrico VI, the archchancellorship of Burgundia was likewise linked to the bishopric of Vienne, and then, from 1257, to that of Trier, with the title archicancellarius per regnum Arellatenae (Arles), and hence for Galliani. The growing political interference of these dignitaries induced Enrico VII to introduce a new reform: from then on, the archchancellors appointed a single chancellor for the entire empire, who exercised his office in the three chanceries in the sovereign’s name, while remaining bound for the appointment to the aforementioned bishops.
Under Federico I Barbarossa, the title of protonotarius appears for the first time, applied to an official whose responsibilities overlapped with those of the chancellor and who fully took his place in his absence. The distinction between employees as notarii and scriptores, however, continued along the lines of the Carolingian chancery.
THE PONTIFICAL CHANCERY. — The beginnings of the pontifical chancery are somewhat obscure, given the scarcity of documents concerning II. It is certain that Christian communities soon had notarii, modeled on pagan institutions; the origin of the papal chancery seems to be connected with them, and by the 5th century it undoubtedly had a well-defined organization and its own [unclear in original]; the presence of a fixed formulary and the use of certain rhythmic clauses in the pontifical letters that have come down to us through collections provide certain evidence of this (cf. F. Di Capua, Il ritmo prosaico nelle lettere dei Papi e nei documenti della c. romana dal IV al XIV sec., I, Rome 1937, p. 201). Toward the end of the 6th century, the period to which, under the pontificate of Gregory the Great, the first reliable elements can be traced, the title notarius et scrinarius is found for chancery officials, indicating, according to the most widely accepted view, that they also performed the duties of archivists. They were gathered in a corporation (schola) based at the Lateran, headed by a primicerius and, subordinate to him, a secundicerius; prominent among them were the notarii regionarii, that is, those of Rome’s seven ecclesiastical districts.
From the 8th century, and more precisely from the pontificate of Hadrian I (772–95), the officials, who began to sign the documents, appear divided into the two traditional categories of “daters” and “writers,” and within their sphere they had particular duties, as can be seen from the title accompanying their names in the subscriptions: notarius, scrinarius, nomenclator, cancellarius, bibliothecarius. The latter office gradually absorbed the duties of the primicerius, and the bibliothecarius soon came to head the chancery: from the pontificate of Gelasius II (1118–19), we see this office consistently conferred upon persons of cardinal rank. At the same time, however, under the influence of the imperial chancery, the office of the cancellarius also rose to great power, so that under Leo IX (1049–54), who introduced substantial changes both concerning the document itself and concerning the organization of the chancery, we find, as in the imperial chancery, the archicancellarius. This title, conferred upon the archbishop of Cologne, was for a certain period combined with that of bibliothecarius; then, under Lucius II (1144–45), it became entirely independent and by itself represented the highest authority of the chancery, while remaining linked to cardinalial dignity.
With Innocent III (1198–1216), another period begins in the history of the pontifical chancery: the new organization, which in its broad outlines remained unchanged until the pontificate of Leo XIII, is extensively documented in the continuous series of the “Registers,” which begins precisely in 1198. The “secretaries,” from whom the litterae secretae were issued—private in character and lacking the formalities of the litterae de curia—were attached to the chancery; then the office of vicecancellarius, which had previously been temporary in character, became permanent and acquired defined functions, until in 1213 it led to the suppression of the dignity of cancellarius. Once the direction of the office had been left to the “vice-chancellor,” it was no longer entrusted to a cardinal; but in the 14th century, under John XXII (1316–34), the “vice-chancellor” too attained that dignity. The institution of the “regent” also dates from the same century: he was appointed by Gregory XI in 1377 to replace the “vice-chancellor,” who had remained at the see of Avignon, and the office subsequently became permanent. During this period, which was perhaps the era of the greatest activity of the pontifical chancery, it was constituted as follows: a cardinal “vice-chancellor,” head of the office; a regent; several protonotarii (corresponding to the ancient notarii); and various minor officials, divided into four categories corresponding to four different sections: the breviatores, who prepared the drafts; the grossatores, who transcribed the document in fair copy (in grossam litteram); the registratores, who carried out the registration procedures; and the bullatores, who affixed the seal. There was also a corrector, who attended exclusively to the formal revision of the acts.
In the following century, with the spread of a new type of document, the “brief (v.),” which presented external and internal characteristics that totally distinguished it from the “bulls,” the need was felt to establish a new office, the Secretariat of Briefs, which absorbed many of the chancery’s responsibilities. The breviatores (or abbreviatori [v.]), while partly assuming the functions of the protonotarii, also acquired new duties of a jurisdictional nature that lay outside the sphere of the chancery. Subsequently the minor offices disappeared, being definitively suppressed by Leo XIII in 1901.
The present organization of the pontifical, or “apostolic,” chancery is regulated by Pius X’s constitution Sapienti consilio, which reduced its size in accordance with the new requirements, restoring for its head the ancient name of cancellarius and linking it to the cardinalial title of S. Lorenzo in Damaso.
Canon 260 of the CIC establishes the following concerning the apostolic chancery: “The proper function of the Apostolic Chancery, presided over by the cardinal chancellor of the Holy Roman Church, is this: to issue apostolic letters or bulls for the provision of consistorial benefices and offices, for the establishment of new provinces, dioceses, or chapters, and for the execution of other major affairs of the Church.”
These letters or bulls are issued only on the mandate of the Congregations: of the Consistory, for the Oriental Church, of Propaganda Fide, etc., or of the Supreme Pontiff; in individual cases, the terms of the mandate itself are observed.
At the head of the chancery is the cardinal chancellor of the Holy Roman Church, assisted by the regent and a few officials. Throughout the course of the Middle Ages, the organization and the