MESSIA and MESSIANISM. – From Heb. *māšîaḥ*
= anointed, head sent by God to govern His people.
The term is applied in the Old Testament to priests (Ex. 28, 41), who received the power and special mission to guide or govern Israel. Every instrument of God was therefore in this sense a *māšîaḥ* (Ps. 115, 15). The term, used in Ps. 2,2 to denote the king and founder of the new covenant promised by Jahweh, later became, in apocryphal and rabbinic literature (Enoch, 48, 10; Ps. Sal., 17, 36; 18, 6 etc.), its exclusive title; the one par excellence, *ha-māšîaḥ*, claimed by the Redeemer Himself (Mt. 16, 15 sgg.; Mc. 15, 61), or “the Christ,” the Greek equivalent of the Hebrew passive participle.
This late clarification does not prevent the grouping, under the same subject, of the different prophecies in which the Elect One who accomplishes the great work of Jahweh is called: “My servant David” (Ez. 37, 25), “Jahweh our justice” (Jer. 23, 6; 33, 16), “servant of Jahweh” (Is. 52, 13), “Shepherd” (Ez. 33, 23; cf. Mi. 5, 3), “shoot, sprout” (Is. 4, 2; 11, 1; Jer. 23, 5) (M.-J. Lagrange, *Le judaisme...* [V. BIBLICA.], p. 365).
The Messiah is inseparable from His kingdom; the two realities are linked both in expectation (Old Testament) and in realization (New Testament). The word and the concept are exclusive to Judaism and Christianity; they constitute the central point of encounter (in prophecy) and of opposition (in realization) between the two religions (A. Vaccari, s. V. in *Enc. Ital.*, XXII, p. 953). The essential lines of messianism, or the doctrine concerning the Messiah, are as follows:
a) Yahwism, concretized in the covenant of Sinai, is the only true religion, but it culminates in a more perfect and definitive covenant, extended to all nations;
b) Israel will be its guiding vehicle;
c) a descendant of David will be its fulfiller and, eternally, its king and high priest (J. Touzard, *Juif, peuple*, in *DFC*, II, col. 1614 sgg.).
The first messianic revelation dates back to the very origins of humanity. The attempt of Satan to make man his permanent follower against the Eternal is thwarted by God: from that moment, the human race is His enemy and will inflict a total and definitive defeat upon Satan (Gen. 3, 14 sgg.). Unanimously, Jewish (Targum of Onkelos, Septuagint, etc.) and Christian tradition rightly identify this victory (of the “seed of the woman” = humanity, but preeminently Christ) with the redemptive work of Jesus, as subsequent revelations and its realization demonstrate (A. Bea [V. BIBLICA.], pp. 198-204; L. Dennefeld, *Le messianisme* [V. BIBLICA.], pp. 15-20; F. Ceuppens, *De Proto-Evangeli*, Rome 1932). It is the “protoevangelium,” the first announcement of the good news. It defines the spiritual and universal nature of the future triumph. Henceforth, increasingly detailed and varied clarifications follow. God will use, for this victory, the descendants of Shem (Jahweh is called “God of Shem”), whose spiritual goods the nations (Japheth) will share with him and through him: “Japheth shall dwell in the tents of Shem” (Gen. 9, 25 sgg.; cf. Rom. 1, 16; 11, 13-27). Among the Semites, He chooses the lineage of Abraham, who will be “a source of blessing for all nations” (Gen. 12, 1-3; cf. 13, 14-17; 17, 1-9; 18, 18 sgg.; 22, 16 sgg.) and enters into a solemn covenant with him (ibid. 15, 8-21; 17), for whose fulfillment He pledges His omnipotence. This confirms the universality of salvation and the intermediary mission of the people descended from Abraham, through the line of Isaac and Jacob (ibid. 26, 3 sgg.; 27, 28 sgg.; cf. A. Bea [V. BIBLICA.], pp. 203-206). In the blessing of Jacob (Gen. 49, 8-12), everything is restricted to the tribe of Judah. It will retain spiritual supremacy (= scepter, staff of command: V. 10), until the Messiah, “to whom belongs sovereignty (cf. Ezek. 21, 32 [Vulg. 27]) and to whom the nations will obey” (v. 10b), has founded the new kingdom. The temple of Jerusalem, seat of worship to Jahweh, was the tangible expression of the aforementioned supremacy; its destruction (70 A.D.) was to demonstrate to the Jews that the Messiah had come and His kingdom had already begun (A. Bea [V. BIBLICA.], pp. 206-12); vv. 11 sgg. belong to the accessory and transient element of messianism (Bea [V. BIBLICA.], p. 211 sgg.): the prediction of extraordinary material happiness and prosperity, which is often the actual fruit of Jahweh’s blessing upon the elected nation in the performance of its mission, when it remains faithful; but ordinarily it is a symbol of the abundance of spiritual goods in the kingdom of the Messiah. At Sinai, the nation arises as “a particular portion of Jahweh,” “the royal reserve”; and with the covenant, which resumes and specifies that with Abraham, the mission of Israel is sanctioned: a people and cultivator of the one true God, Jahweh (Ex. 19, 5 sgg.; 20, 1-17; cf. L. Cerfaux, *Regale sacerdotium*, in *Revue des sciences philosophiques*, 28 [1939], pp. 5-39). The temporary character of the covenant is indicated in the sanction (Ex. 20, 5; cf. Lev. 26; Deut. 28; 34, 29 sgg.).
The other books of the Pentateuch and the historical books up to David contain no messianic references, except Num. 24, 15-19 and Deut. 18, 15-19; they narrate the fulfillment of the covenant of Sinai by Jahweh (Exodus-Joshua), and the alternating, imperfect correspondence on the part of Israel (Judges-I Samuel). With the monarchy, more precisely with the covenant of Jahweh with David, messianic hopes are resumed and strengthened. With the prophecy of Nathan (II Sam. 7), “Israel is established forever as the people of God,” governed forever by the dynasty of David.
The pious David, taking up the thread of ancient promises, understands the design of Jahweh, and, divinely inspired, celebrates the mysterious liberator whom God associates with Himself for the fulfillment of His kingdom: Ps. 2; 21 [22]; 71 [72]; 109 [110]. Son (Ps. 2, 7; Heb. 1, 5) and equal to Jahweh (Ps. 99 [100], 1; Jahweh invites him to sit at His right hand = Heb. 1, 13; Mt. 22, 41-46), sovereign of Israel and the nations (Ps. 2, 6; 71, 8-11); priest forever (Ps. 109, 4 = Heb. 5, 6; 7) = exemplar of justice (Ps. 71, 7), He will perfectly realize the kingdom of God in humanity. The priesthood of the Messiah, quite distinct from that of Levi, which was temporary like the covenant of Sinai, shares in the stability of the kingdom of God, is eternal and definitive. The Messiah, finally, as a descendant of David (II Sam. 7, 16), is a man; and David describes His sufferings (Ps. 21 [22]) and His Resurrection (Ps. 15 [16]; cf. Acts 2, 25-32; 13, 35 sgg.; A. Vaccari, *La Redenzione*, Rome 1934, pp. 165-90).
Certainly, the contemporaries of the great King and, at times, the prophet himself (Sum. Theol., 2,2-2,2, q. 173, a. 4), beyond not perceiving how the different aspects of the future liberator would be realized, did not grasp the full value of the individual predictions.
From the death of Solomon to the prophets of the 8th century stretches a sad period of disarray. The tribes of the north withdraw from the Sinai covenant and, after the destruction of Samaria (despite the final appeal to the justice [Amos] and love [Hosea] of Jahweh), are absorbed into the idolatrous world. The Sinai covenant is in fact reduced to the single kingdom of Judah (= covenant with David). Nor did the latter learn the lesson of Samaria’s terrible collapse (Ez. 16, 44-52; 23); it rather worsened along the path of idolatry, injustice, and immorality (Is. 1, 5 ff.; Mi. 3; 7, 2-6; Jer. 2, 5, 19-31; Ez. 4-6, etc.), reducing its relations with Jahweh to mere external worship (as other peoples did with their deities) and utterly neglecting the covenant’s precepts: monotheism and moral law (Os. 2; Mi. 6, 6 ff.; Is. 1; 5, 1-7; Jer. 2, 7; 11; Ex. 15, 16; 20; 22; etc.). The prophets, therefore, in combating these deviations, set forth the essence of the Sinai covenant, announce its consequences, and reveal its ultimate purpose: a) Judah, for the honor and justice of Jahweh, must be destroyed (Ex. 7, 14, 12-21; 15; 16; etc.; Jer. 8, 4-12; 11, 9-17; 16, 10-17; etc.); b) yet in order to accomplish His designs (Is. 48, 9 ff.; Ex. 20, 22-44; 36, 21-32), Jahweh does not annihilate it; He preserves a “remnant,” which He will purify in the long exile and bring back to Palestine to reconstitute the new Israel; this, in due time, will be exalted and absorbed into the kingdom of the Messiah, the end of all divine economy (Am. 4, 11; 9, 9; Mi. 4, 6 ff.; 7, 19; Is. 1, 9; 7, 3; 10, 20 ff.; 40-66; Jer. 3, 14; 16; 23, 3; 24, 6; 30-31; 33; Ex. 11, 13-20; 34; 37, 12; etc.).
Hence the prophets describe as closely conjoined the return from exile, the theocratic restoration, and the messianic salvation, the first being the immediate prelude and preparation for the last. Daniel 9 expressly specifies this. The restoration foretold by Jer. 25, 11 f.; 29, 10 (cf. 2 Chron. 36, 21) will begin after 70 years from 605 B.C., but it will proceed slowly. Three periods precede it: the first ends with Cyrus’s edict (538 B.C.); the second, longer, sees the reconstruction of the Temple and of Jerusalem amid every kind of adversity, and closes with the murder of Onias III (171 B.C.); the third sees the persecution of Antiochus Epiphanes with the profanation of the sanctuary (abominatio desolationis) for three and a half years, ending with the death of the persecutor and the beginning of the restored worship by Judas Maccabeus (Dan. 9, 25 f.; cf. 2, 7-12). The restoration will be complete only with the advent of the kingdom of the Messiah, when “every sin shall be blotted out and an everlasting righteousness shall reign” (ibid. 9, 24). This connection remains intact even in the exegesis that extends the 70 weeks to the death of Christ.
It is the clear demonstration that the covenant with David exists only in view of the future Messiah; for this reason Judah cannot perish (Is. 7, 7; A. Pohl, Historia populi Israel, Rome 1933, p. 133 f.); hence the prophets give the most beautiful messianic prophecies immediately after announcing the devastations and ruin of the kingdom (Is. 4, 1 f.; 7, 14 b after V. 25; 8, 5-8; 8, 23-9, 1 [Hebr.]; 11, 1; Ez. 17, 22 f.; etc.). This is a logical, not a temporal, connection; so too with the other connection between restoration and the kingdom of the Messiah. Nor is this a new orientation in the prophets’ messianism, but only an enrichment and clearer formulation.
Characteristics of the Messiah will be: a) He will be of the lineage of David: Is. 11, 1; Jer. 23, 5; 33, 15; Ez. 17, 22 (cf. Lk. 1, 32); b) He will be born in Bethlehem: Mi. 5, 1 = Mt. 2, 6; c) He will be born of a Virgin: Is. 7, 14 b = Mt. 1, 23; cf. Mi. 5, 2 (a pearl of messianic prophecy; the sign offered to Ahaz is the son of Is. 7, 3. 16 [Sē’ār jāšūb], as the other son in Is. 8, 4: “before he knows how to refuse evil and choose good, the land of the two kings you dread shall be deserted”; vv. 21 f. announce the prosperity and abundance [also in texts from Ras Shamra: cf. R. Dussaud, Les découvertes de R. S..., Paris 1937, p. 79 f.] of messianic times); d) He will be filled with the spirit of Jahweh: Is. 11, 1-5; 42, 1 (cf. 61, 1 f. = Lk. 4, 18 f.; divine power granted temporarily, which in the Messiah is a permanent gift for His lofty mission: cf. P. van Imschoot, in Ephem. theol. Lovan., 16 [1939], pp. 357-67); e) He will be the “servant of Jahweh,” i.e., His worship par excellence: Is. 42, 1; 49, 3-5; 52, 13; to whom He will give full glory (ibid. 49, 3), fulfilling faithfully the spiritual mission entrusted to Him, namely: to establish the definitive covenant with Israel (ibid. 42, 6 f.; 49, 5; 53, 8), extended to all nations (ibid. 42, 1; 3, 49, 6 f.; “It is too light a thing that you should be my servant to raise up the tribes of Jacob and to restore the preserved of Israel; I will give you as a light to the nations, that my salvation may reach to the end of the earth”); to announce the divine law which is its norm (ibid. 42, 1, 3); to redeem humanity by offering Himself to unheard-of moral and physical torments (ibid. 49, 4; 50, 5-7; 52, 14; 53, 2 f., 5, 7 f.), culminating in capital punishment (ibid. 53, 8 f.). The nations will later learn, with wonder (ibid. 53, 1), of the sacrifice of the “Servant of Jahweh,” His vicarious expiation, and the marvelous consequences that follow; they will hasten to the Elect whom Jahweh will exalt (ibid. 49, 7; 52, 13-53, 12). The Jewish people will expiate with national mourning the killing of the Messiah: Zach. 12, 8-13, 1 (= Mt. 24, 30; Jn. 19, 37). V. ABADDON.
The Messiah will have a divine nature: He will be called (the name expresses the nature) “Wonderful Counselor, Mighty God, Everlasting Father, Prince of Peace” (Is. 9, 6); He will have knowledge of hidden thoughts: “He will not judge by what His eyes see, nor decide by what His ears hear”; He will have divine power: “He will strike the ruthless with the rod of His mouth, and with the breath of His lips He will slay the wicked” (ibid. 11, 3 f.). He will reign forever (Ez. 37, 25); cf. Mi. 5, 1, whose terms are so strong as easily to lead to the conclusion of the Messiah’s preexistence, though they express in themselves only a very remote origin; Dan. 7, 13 f. calls Him of heavenly origin.
His kingdom will be universal, definitive, and spiritual: Is. 11, 10; 42, 1-7; 49, 5 f.; 61, 1 f.; Jer. 31, 31-34 (=Hebr. 8, 8-12); Dan. 7, 14-27; 9, 24; it will have Zion as its center of diffusion (Os. 2, 19-24; Is. 2, 2 f.; Mi. 4, 2 f.; Jer. 31, 33; Ez. 16, 60 f.; 17, 23; etc.) and will be a source of blessing for all nations (Ez. 34, 26 = Gen. 12, 2). Characteristics of the Messiah’s kingdom: the remission of sins and holiness: Is. 56, 6; 57, 13; Jer. 31, 23-34; Ez. 36, 25-28; etc. (cf. Lk. 1, 77 f.); peace, perfect order in relations with God and neighbor: Is. 9, 6 f.; Mi. 5, 5; Ez. 34, 25 f.; etc.; an abundance of spiritual goods, symbolically expressed by the liveliest images of extraordinary fertility: Is. 7, 21 f.; 9, 3, 6; 32, 1-5.15-18; Ez. 47, 1-12; etc. (cf. the image of the prepared table: Mt. 22, 4; Lk. 14, 15-24). For the reborn Israel, Jahweh’s assistance (Is. 40-60) ensures triumph over present enemies (Ez. 35-36) and future ones (Ez. 38-39; Dan. 7-12) and every prosperity (Is. 31, 10-14; Ez. 34, 25-29; etc.).
Tali wonderful promises preserved among the exiles the Yahwism and the hope in the glorious future of their nation. Certain that they were the “remnant” or “holy seed” which Jahweh had reserved for Himself (Ezra 2:26; 9:8, 13), those who undertook the long desert journey for the return to their homeland (537 B.C.) thought that these promises were fully realized in them; the difficulties encountered (cf. Ezra-Nehemiah) shook their enthusiasm (cf. Ps. 125 [126]; 84 [85]). Haggai and Zechariah rekindled their spirits with messianic hope; and with Joel and Malachi they brought to completion the indefatigable work begun by Ezra and Nehemiah. It is true that the repatriated are the “remnant” foretold (Hag. 1:12; Zech. 8:6, 11; cf. 2:9, 14 [Vulg. 2:5, 10]). The Israel of the promises (Zech. 1:7-17; 2:5-17 [Vulg. 2:1-13]; Mal. 1:1-5; Joel 2:18, 26), the heirs of the Sinai or Davidic covenant (Hag. 2:5; which now reaches its full realization: Zech. 2:16; 8:8; Joel 2:17; 4:2, 16 [Vulg. 3:2, 16]), and are blessed by Jahweh (Hag. 2:18; Zech. 8:14), while Edom and all who rejoiced at the ruin of Judah are about to be punished (Zech. 1:7-17; Mal. 1:1-5; Joel 4:4-8). But the present is only a shadow of the future glory: the reconstituted theocracy is prepared and a prelude to the kingdom of the Messiah (Hag. 2:6-9; Zech. 6; Mal. 1:11; 3:1; Joel 4), and therefore it cannot perish until the fulfillment of its mission, despite the final attempt of pagan forces (Hag. 2:20-23; Joel 4:9-18; which reflects Ezek. 38-39). The visions of Zechariah, the prophecies of Joel, have as their central idea the perpetuity of the reborn Israel.
The Chronicler, in his history of the theocracy, demonstrates that Jahweh has a particular design in the course of humanity and directs peoples and Israel toward this end as absolute sovereign. This divine plan begins to be realized in the covenant with Abraham (1 Chron. 16:15). It develops in that of Sinai (1 Chron. 5:10; 6:11), and is concretized and narrowed in that with David, as king of Judah (1 Chron. 17:16-27; 28:4-8). This covenant, now realized in the restored theocracy, culminates in the kingdom of the Messiah, the unique and ultimate object intended by Jahweh (1 Chron. 17:10-14). The post-exilic prophets emphasize: a) the triumph of the Messiah, a meek king who comes riding on an ass, and will peacefully rule over all the earth: Zech. 9:9 = Matt. 21:5; b) a single perfect sacrifice, spotless, offered to Jahweh throughout the world, will take the place of Mosaic sacrifices: Mal. 1:11; c) a precursor will immediately prepare the people for the work of the Messiah (Mal. 3:1; cf. Isa. 42:6; 49:8; Hag. 2:9). This precursor, of whom Elijah is the type, “will turn the hearts of the fathers to the children and vice versa” (Mal. 4:5 = Luke 1:16; Matt. 11:10; 17:10-13). There are also hints of messianic hope in Ecclus. 36:6-22; 45:22, etc.; and in Wis. 18:4; 14:11-14.
The Maccabean period, with its struggle against the Seleucids, led the Jews to a mistaken interpretation of the Messiah, which is affirmed in apocryphal and rabbinic literature. Their never-extinguished particularism, as shown by the Book of Jonah (q.v.), found in that political situation new and decisive impetus. Messianic salvation was directed entirely for the benefit of Israel, the elect; and was understood almost exclusively as the political dominion of this over all nations. The essential ideas of messianism were neglected in favor of the fleeting and secondary element, with a literal exegesis often exaggerated to the point of absurdity (S. Szekely, *Bibliotheca apocrypha*, Freiburg im Br. 1913, pp. 69-74; q.V. APOCALYPTIC). The prophecies of Daniel, published and disseminated in that period (cf. Dan. 8:26; 12:4, 9), probably served as the basis for such a transformation. The kingdom of the Messiah is described there as an empire that replaces the preceding ones. From this simple chronological succession, an analogy was drawn regarding its nature, assimilating it in origin, form, and government to the empires of the nations (cf. Luke 17:20). The Messiah was therefore considered, predominantly if not exclusively, as a warrior king and conqueror (cf. John 6:15; 18:34). The forgiveness of sins (H. L. Strack-Billerbeck [q.v.], I, p. 405), redemption, and the sufferings of the Messiah were utterly ignored (cf. Matt. 16:21; Mark 8:31; 9:31; Luke 18:34; 24:21; John 12:34).
In the apocrypha, the Messiah still has supernatural and divine characteristics (1 En. 49:1-4; 52:5-9; 71-72; Ps. Sol. 17; Test. Patr., Levi 18; etc.; cf. J. Bonsirven [q.v.], I, pp. 362, 370-74); the rabbis, however, assimilate him to a mere man, even if adorned with the gifts of the Spirit of Jahweh (Isa. 11:1; Sanhedrin 93a-b; Midrash Ruth 3:15; etc.); they saw no other way to preserve the dogma of monotheism (cf. *Dialogue with Trypho*, 49-50). His Davidic origin is undisputed (Ps. Sol. 17:5, 23; 4 Ezra 12:32; Sanhedrin 97a, 98a; cf. Matt. 22:41-45); he will appear suddenly (cf. John 7:27), revealed and consecrated by Elijah, who, among other things, with the trumpet of the Messiah will gather the scattered Israelites from around the world (Sanhedrin 10:3; etc.; cf. Matt. 17:10). The advent of the Messiah, eagerly awaited as imminent, will be preceded by a period of severe tribulations (from Dan. 12:1; cf. 1 En. 80:7; 100; Apoc. Bar. 70:2-8; etc.; H. L. Strack-P. Billerbeck [q.v.], IV, pp. 977-86). Palestine and Jerusalem, after the triumph over the nations, will be transformed; its inhabitants will possess every wealth, long life free from all evil (Apoc. Bar. 29:3; 73; 1 En. 10:16-19; Sib. Or. 3:371-80; 710-26; etc.; H. L. Strack-P. Billerbeck, I, p. 593). The kingdom of the Messiah, according to the apocrypha, will be eternal (Ps. Sol. 17:4; etc.; cf. John 12:34); the rabbis, however, set its duration with figures (from 40 to 365,000 years), perhaps symbolic.
The opposition between the Revelation accomplished by Christ and the dominant Jewish interpretation could not have been more stark; it was fatal to Israel, which remained outside of salvation (cf. Matt. 8:11; etc.).
The source of messianism is divine Revelation. This is clearly demonstrated by the impossibility of giving any other plausible explanation. According to the school of J. Wellhausen (K. Marti, B. Stade, and, at a distance without better criteria or success, A. von Gall), it arose after the exile from three factors: the national disaster, the influence of paradise in exile, and the return and especially the victory of the Maccabees. The ancient prophets were merely messengers of doom; they could not offer guilty Israel the rosy messianic promises. The oracles attributed to them are later insertions. But the arbitrary evolutionary scheme did not withstand the test of archaeology; ideas and institutions of the Old Testament, defined by Wellhausen as “recent,” proved to be in conformity with those attested in the ancient Near East.
“At the beginning of the 20th century the comparative school (H. Gunkel, H. Gressmann) reversed the terms; the idea of a saving Messiah is among the oldest elements of the prophetic message; it has its roots in the mythology of cosmic origins (Babylon). The world must end as it began: with the victory of a creator god over
demonic forces; it will end with the victory of a saving god over his malevolent adversaries to inaugurate a new world» (A. Vaccari). The Irsaletti would have taken (the 10th century BC) such mythological ideas, purifying them, transforming them, and applying them to the destiny of their nation: the cosmic upheaval would have ruined the pagans, while it would have granted Israel definitive happiness. «This theory is a pure chimera» (L. Dennefeld, Le messianisme, p. 256): there is no Babylonian eschatology; there is nothing in Babylon or in Egypt (ibid., pp. 268-78) that can in any way approximate biblical messianism (spiritual redemption of humanity, a wholly particular work of Yahweh, accomplished by his «servant» the Messiah), from which every cosmic eschatology is excluded. Against the influence of Persian Mazdaism (asserted by R. Reitzenstein), which would only be possible after the exile, stands the antiquity of messianism and of Hebrew sources.
«An indigenous origin, albeit with distant dependence on Babylon, was asserted by S. Mowinckel (G. Holscher, H. Schmidt). In the temple of Jerusalem, on the first day of the civil year, a feast of the kingship of Yahweh would have been celebrated, similar to a similar feast celebrated in Babylon in honor of Marduk. The kingdom of Yahweh, dramatized in the liturgy of that day, not being realized in the present, was projected into the future, and thus the messianic idea arose even in the time of the monarchy. More things without solid foundations are assumed (even in this brilliant theory). There is no trace among the Hebrews of a feast of Yahweh-king; nor in Babylon did the New Year’s festival have the meaning attributed to it here: Marduk was honored as the distributor of destiny for the new year» (A. Vaccari). Too artificial to be true, unfounded from a historical point of view and excellent, it is psychologically implausible: cult presupposes, it does not create, religious ideas; it intensifies them, it does not transform them.
The Messiah and his kingdom are the ultimate goal intended by God in the «covenant» of Sinai, which clarifies and determines the ancient «covenant» with Abraham, the «promise» (ἐπαγγελία: Rom. 4:13-16; 9:8; Gal. 3:16-29; 4:28) made for his posterity. The marvelous and varied development of messianism, with its enrichments and later clarifications, occurring sporadically yet so harmoniously converging into a single framework, without contrasts or contradictions, despite the different aspects noted, remains inexplicable without the Revelation of Yahweh. The prophets were conscious of this and were convinced advocates of II. The marvelous correspondence between the predictions of the prophets and their fulfillment is, in the end, the final seal of divine inspiration (Is. 41:22 ff.; 44:7 ff.; 44:26; 45:21; 46:10 ff.).
MEXICO
1) State boundaries; 2) regional boundaries; 3) ecclesiastical district boundaries; 4) railways.M. Baruch, De messianismo in - Documento Zadoqueo, in Verbum Dom., 16 (1936), pp. 89-96, 123-27, 183-92, 212-45; L. Köhler, Theologie des Alten Testaments, Tübingen 1936, pp. 217-30; W. Möller, Biblische Theologie des Alten Testaments in heilsgeschichtlicher Entwicklung, Zwickau 1938, pp. 497-99; 513-19; J. Buda, Semah Jahweh, in Biblica, 20 (1939), pp. 10-26; A. Noordtzij, Les intentions du Chroniste, in Rev. bibl., 49 (1940), pp. 161-68; A. G. Herbert, The throne of David, New York 1942; J. Schildenberger, Weisagung und Erfüllung, in Biblica, 24 (1943), pp. 107-24, 205-30; G. F. Beavan, The hope of Israel in the post-captivity period, Dallas 1945; H. Koch, Der Gottesgeist und der Messias, in Biblica, 27 (1946), pp. 241-68, 376-403; D. Deden, De messianae profetiam, Roc 1947; S. Grill, Doppelbedeutung der alttestamentlichen Messiasnamen, in Klerusblatt, 50 (1947), p. 182 sq.; J. Obersteiner, Die Christusbotschaft des Alten Testaments, Vienna 1947; G. Pidoux, Le Dieu qui vient. Espérance d'Israël, Neuchâtel 1947; L. Rost, Sinaibund und Davidsbund, in Theologische Literaturzeitung, 72 (1947), pp. 39-54; C. Scheid, Die Sehnsucht der ewigen Hügel, Christus im Alten Testament, Graz 1947; H. Duesberg, Les valeurs chrétiennes de l'Ancien Testament, Marédous 1948; F. A. Herzog, Probleme der messianischen Weisagung, in Schweizerische Kirchenzeitung, 1948, pp. 193-96, 206 sqg.; A. F. Knight, From Moses to Paul: a christological study in the light of our hebraic heritage, London 1948; F. Spadafora, Ezechiele, Turin 1948, pp. 95-137, 399-44 sq.; 258-61, 275 sqg. Francesco Spadafora