Ascetical Theology (ASCETICA, TEOLOGIA) - Catholic Encyclopedia, Vol. II, p. 79

Machine translation of the 1948–1954 Italian original. The original text is authoritative.

ASCETICA, TEOLOGIA. – asceticism (v.).

The formula “t. a.” seems to date back only to the seventeenth century (in the Franciscan C. Dobrosielski, Summarium asceticae et mysticae theologiae, Kraków 1655, and the Jesuit C. Schorrer, Theologia ascetica, Rome 1658), alongside the much more common and older expression “Mystical Theology.” Once mysticism was restricted to one sector of the spiritual life, the two were also treated separately (G. B. Scaramelli, v.). Today the designation Spiritual Theology is gaining ground, expressing their fundamental unity of object and purpose: spiritual perfection.

In the most common sense, a. is the branch of spiritual theology that studies Christian perfection attained through the ordinary means of grace. As the theological science of Christian perfection, a. studies the problems relating to its nature and attainment.

SUMMARY:

I. Nature

II. Sources

III. Method

IV. History.

I. NATURE

The proper object of theology is God in the supernatural order of being and knowability.

Ascetic theology considers God as the first supernatural end to be attained, the supreme good that gives a supernatural orientation to human activity. In this sphere of moral action, the lengthy “return” of the rational creature to God (s. Tommaso, Sum. Theol., 1a, q. 2, proemio) entails two aspects: either restricting oneself to what is prescribed (the simply good and lawful), or advancing through free initiative toward what is better and perfect. The first moment circumscribes moral theology, the second ascetic-mystical theology. The latter receives from dogmatic theology the foundations of supernatural life and from moral theology the bases of moral life; beyond this, whatever concerns the development of the supernatural organism in man, its productive causes, means, obstacles, the various stages and vicissitudes in the practice of virtue, constitutes the characteristic object of ascetic-mystical theology, which thus becomes a point of convergence between dogmatics and moral theology, sharing in the speculative sublimity of the former and the practical interest of the latter.

Opinions concerning the relations and boundaries between asceticism and mysticism are highly divergent, and there are many nuances among the representatives of the same tendency. Even today there are those who, under asceticism or mysticism, embrace the whole of spiritual doctrine (F. Murawski, S. Louismet). Generally, however, the two names correspond to distinct treatments: the passive element characterizes mysticism. By passivity is meant the free action of God that acts exclusively upon the soul, whereas activity embraces the whole of the soul’s immediate and direct efforts under the influence of grace. The active element, throughout the entire extent of the spiritual life, is attributed to asceticism; the passive element, which predominates in the unitive life, to mysticism. In this conception, the relations between asceticism and mysticism are exceedingly close, the two elements functioning almost as complements of one another (F.-X. Mutz, F. Cayré).

The two elements may be considered more directly in relation to the intrinsic development of the spiritual life toward perfection. Some understand the passive element only in a charismatic and extraordinary sense, and therefore tend to regard asceticism and mysticism as adequately and specifically distinct (A. Poulain, A. Farges, Crisogono di Gesù Sacramentato); others understand it as universally necessary to holiness, not precisely extraordinary, and intrinsically connect mysticism with asceticism, while acknowledging that passivity belongs to the higher degrees (A. Saudreau, R. Garrigou-Lagrange, J. Schryvers). Others attend more particularly to the moment at which passivity predominates: some extend asceticism to the threshold of infused contemplation (A. Tanquerey), while others reserve for it more strictly the purgative and illuminative ways (J. Zahn). For these, spiritual science is fundamentally one, as it is also for those who propose intermediate solutions to the problem of the unity of the spiritual life (J. Heerinckx, J. de Guibert, Gabriele di s. Maria Maddalena).

One of the characteristic aspects of recent scholarship is the discussion of the problem of the “unity of the spiritual life.” The question is, that is, whether asceticism and mysticism are two distinct paths to Christian perfection; in other words, whether mysticism, with infused contemplation, is necessary to holiness. Alongside the extreme positions, intermediate solutions have also been proposed (cf. J. de Guibert, Theol. spir. asc. et myst., nn. 423-29; Gabriele di s. Maria Maddalena, Mistica Teresiana, p. 125 sgg.). Theologians defend the various opinions independently of their belonging to one school or another. The problem has not yet found a satisfactory solution, because it has not been perfectly delimited; the notions are often confused, nor is there agreement concerning the terminology. It involves highly delicate questions of theology and supernatural psychology: the operations of the gifts of the Holy Spirit, infused contemplation, affective cognition—questions not clearly defined by scholastic doctrine (F. V. BAINVEL, VINCENT, Introduction à la 1re éd. des «Grâces d'Oraison» du r. p. Poulain, Parigi 1923, pp. XXXII-XXXVI e XLVI-LXX).

The general outline of the subject matter treated by ascetic theology is as follows:
1) Christian perfection, the goal to be attained, the fundamental theme whose nature, integral elements, attainability, and causality throughout the spiritual life it discloses. 2) The forces capable of driving us forward or holding us back, within and above man. In man, with the aid of psychology, it examines the various elements of human activity, their cooperation and their conflict (disposition, character, passions, relations between the senses and the spirit); according to dogmatic criteria, it analyzes the constitution of the supernatural organism and the dynamism that gives it life (grace, infused virtues, gifts of the Holy Spirit). Outside man, the manifold divine causality and the pernicious intervention of the demonic, the relations between divine and human activity, discernment of spirits, spiritual direction. 3) Movement toward perfection: having outlined the path by which the supernatural organism develops, it analyzes the manifold means and exercises through which spiritual progress is achieved: means possessing an intrinsic perfective efficacy (Sacraments), purificatory means and means correcting human deficiency, means elevating the spiritual faculties to union with God (mortification, prayer, examination of conscience, apostolate). It then follows the three successive traditional stages of the journey: the purgative way, or that of beginners; the illuminative way, or that of the proficient; and the unitive way, or that of the perfect, generally leaving to mysticism “passivity,” especially infused contemplation and certain special phenomena, such as ecstasies, revelations, and visions. It distinguishes the different states of life—contemplative and active, virginal and married—in order to indicate the norms most appropriate to each.

II. SOURCES

1. Common theological sources: the revelation of the supernatural life is contained in Sacred Scripture and tradition. a) Sacred Scripture sets forth the entire framework of asceticism, both in its truths and in its principles of action, from justification, which renews inwardly, to the necessity of complete detachment, from the precept of love to union with God in Christ (v. ASCESI). b) Tradition has particular importance, since the supernatural as lived becomes the subject of numerous observations and analyses gathered over the centuries. c) The solemn ecclesiastical magisterium has dealt almost exclusively with dogmatic truths (cf., however, J. Heerinckx, n. 56). In the ordinary magisterium, on the other hand, ascetical teaching abounds (a list of subjects in J. Heerinckx, n. 62). The Church has very frequently intervened against the errors and extravagances of heretics, such as the Euchites, Albigensians, and Quietists. Moreover, it intervenes through the many disciplinary laws of the Code; in the definitive approval of the laws of religious institutes, expressly declared to be a sure norm of moral perfection; and in the canonization of the saints, whose itinerary of heroic virtues it in a sense retraces (cf. Heerinckx, n. 64 ff.).

2. Particular theological sources of asceticism are the works of ascetical writers, whether considered individually or grouped into the so-called «spiritual schools». Their authority derives from their competence in the subject, and even more from their eminent spiritual life when they are saints; sometimes it derives from particular approval by the Church—as, for example, in the case of s. Teresa—or from the unanimous approval of the centuries, as in the case of the Imitation of Christ. Among them, certain figures, by reason of their learning, holiness, experience of many souls, and the solemn approval of the Church and the faithful, are exceptional authorities: s. Giovanni della Croce, s. Francesco di Sales, s. Alfonso de' Liguori (Heerinckx, n. 80 ff.; J. de Guibert, op. cit., nn. 21-28).

3. Experimental sources are required by the very nature of asceticism, an eminently practical science whose object is the supernatural as it is to be lived. They include: a) The psychology of the human subject: the supernatural penetrates and intimately vivifies natural spiritual life while respecting its fundamental laws. The functioning of the psychic organism sheds light on very many ascetical problems, clarifies the development of the passions and their relations with the moral life, the influence of sensory impressions, and the education of character, as well as various morbid psychic states that externally imitate mystical phenomena. The great masters of asceticism have always cultivated psychological observation, and modern scholars make use of the results of experimental psychology. b) General religious experience, in studying facts common to religions that differ profoundly, has no considerable direct importance; but it can confirm general theses concerning the value of certain spiritual factors and can provide, negatively, arguments with which to rebut the arbitrary assertions of non-Catholic critics who readily mistake accidental similarities for substantial identities. c) The study of Catholic religious experience, through hagiography or biographies of persons of eminent piety, is of capital importance: assuming the conditions of veracity required by historical criticism, it enables us to see ascetical or mystical life in action, in individuals differing in sex, character, condition, culture, period, and milieu. By observing many supernatural facts, cataloguing them, comparing them, and situating them within the framework of revealed ascetical truths, an experimental foundation is provided for spiritual science. d) Personal experience (one’s own and that of others) is of great assistance, insofar as it facilitates judgment concerning the supernatural, somewhat as taste and artistic initiation enable one to judge works of art. Indeed, it broadly inspires the works of the great masters (s. Giovanni della Croce, Fiamma viva d'amore, proem).

III. METHOD

In the systematic treatment of ascetic theology, the only effective method is at once deductive and experimental (A. Tanquerey, Compendio di teologia a. e mistica, Roma 1928, nn. 25–33; J. Heerinckx, nn. 158–68; R. Garrigou-Lagrange, Perfezione Cristiana e Contemplazione, Torino 1933, I, a. 1; J. de Guibert, op. cit., nn. 13–15). This is required by the eminently practical character of this science.

The revealed principles of morality and theological truths are independent of all personal experience (e.g., the precept of charity and the necessity of actual grace), just as are ethical and psychological truths of universal validity. Ascetical doctrinal synthesis draws upon such truths and principles in establishing the norms for moral activity directed toward perfection. This deductive method highlights truths of absolute value, from which the normal practical criterion will proceed. On the other hand, supernatural life assumes such a variety of forms that, in individual cases, it is impossible to have recourse to universal principles. Only through careful observation of the various phenomena is it possible to assess each fact accurately and trace its origin and scope: by means of this experimental and inductive method (improperly called descriptive), ascetical theology is provided with a positive foundation. The fruitfulness of ascetical study results from the harmony of the two methods. Exclusivity of the first leads to an unreal and arbitrary schematism; exclusivity of the second diminishes ascetic theology as a science and gives rise to easy confusion between the accidental and the essential.

IV. HISTORY

1. The Ancient Period (1st–7th centuries). Ascetic theology is found within the sphere of the remaining sacred teaching, contained in the diverse literary production extending from homilies to the epistolary genre, biography, monastic rules, and certain systematic treatises. Particular mention should be made of Origen, Tertullian, Cyprian (v.) for their teaching on prayer. Clement of Alexandria (v.) presents original elements; in his ascetic ideal, «apatheia», charity, and especially «gnosis» predominate. Alongside works of a biographical nature (the typical document being the Vita Antonii of St. Athanasius) and collections of sayings (Apophthegmata), monasticism produced genuine treatises. Three writers stand out: Evagrius Ponticus (PG 40), Nilus of Sinai (PG 79), and Mark the Hermit (PG 65). Of the rules, the most famous are the two Regulae of St. Basil (PG 31), the so-called Rule of St. Augustine (PL 33), and the Rule of St. Benedict.

Ascetic teaching is abundant in all the great Fathers of the Church, especially in Chrysostom and Gre-

Gregory the Great (v.). St. Augustine, as in the other branches of theology, is an eminent master: perhaps his greatest merit lies in having brought fully to light the essential importance of charity as the substance of perfection and the measure of its degrees; and, in analyzing the impotence of man afflicted by sin, he delineates the extensive purifying labor necessary to restore the image of God in man, insisting on the means of this renewal: prayer and cooperation with grace.

The original systematic works are those of Cassian and St. John Climacus, who respectively summarized, for the West and for the East, the monastic ascetic doctrine. They dwell at length on the internal and external obstacles and on the means of perfection, up to the heights of contemplation and undisturbed peace, the fruit of perfect charity. To Pseudo-Dionysius the Areopagite, whose concern is more directly with mysticism, the distinction of the three stages of the spiritual life has been attributed. This period closes with St. Maximus the Confessor (d. 662).

2. The Medieval Period (11th–15th centuries). The Middle Ages were pervaded by ascetic fervor. The great scholastics also concerned themselves with spiritual problems, and the so-called «spiritual schools» arose. These originated with powerful personalities whose disciples, while remaining within the background of a common spirituality, emphasized particular forms of life and the problems connected with them. This intense vitality gave rise to an exceedingly abundant literary production. The description of ascetical-mystical experience was accompanied by the theological formulation of the corresponding problems. The various schools display variety in subject matter and tone: lyric writers alternate with treatise writers, and practical and affective theologians with theoretical and speculative ones.

a) The Benedictine School, which leads to serene contemplation through liturgical prayer, retreat, work, moderate austerity, and develops a tender love for the mysteries of Christ, is represented by St. Anselm and St. Bernard (PL 182–83), as well as by the great mystics Hildegard (d. 1179) and Gertrude the Great (d. 1301).

b) The School of Saint-Victor unites the speculative-affective spirit of St. Augustine with the Platonism of Pseudo-Dionysius, aiming at the highest contemplation, and creates the method of a higher, contemplative meditation. Its most distinguished masters are Hugh (d. 1141), De modo orandi, De vanitate mundi, De laude caritatis (PL 176), and Richard (d. 1173), De statu interioris hominis; Beniamin minor (or Liber de prereparatione animi ad contemplationem) (PL 196); Beniamin maior (or De gratia contemplationis) (PL 195).

c) The Dominican School unites contemplative and apostolic spirituality with a doctrinal character. Aquinas illuminates practically all the questions pertaining to spiritual theology, from the analysis of the passions to the gifts of the Holy Spirit and contemplation (cf. F. Cayré, Patrologia e Storia della Teologia, II, Rome 1938, pp. 614–16). Important for her experience is St. Catherine of Siena (Il Dialogo). Although possessing its own Dionysian character, the triad of Meister Eckhart, G. Tauler, and E. Suso belongs to this school; they inculcate the most complete self-denial and the negative knowledge of God.

d) The Franciscan School is affective both in practice and in teaching; it is characterized by devotion to poverty and evangelical simplicity and by a passionate love for the humanity of Christ. These characteristics stand out wonderfully in St. Bonaventure (d. 1274), who establishes the outlines of the three stages of the spiritual life—purgative, illuminative, and unitive—in forms accepted by later masters (Itinerarium mentis in Deum, Incaudium amoris). In the field of experience, Angela of Foligno (d. 1309) deserves mention.

e) The School of «Modern Devotion» (v.), which arose in the middle of the 14th century, displays mystical fervor and careful regulation of the interior life. In addition to the great master John Ruysbroeck (d. 1381), who pursued above all complete renunciation with a view to intimate mystical union, it includes Thomas à Kempis (d. 1471), and Giov. Gerson (d. 1429) may also be associated with II.
f) In the Carthusian School, the ascetic intention predominates, together with the affective method. Its principal representative is Denis the Carthusian (d. 1471), who epitomizes the entire medieval ascetical-mystical spirituality.

3. The Modern and Contemporary Period (16th–20th centuries). Ascetic theology made decisive progress: in method and dissemination through St. Ignatius, St. Francis de Sales, and St. Alphonsus; in its mystical orientation through St. Teresa and St. John of the Cross; in the deepening of dogma through the Christological doctrine of the French school, the practice of reparation, and devotion to the Sacred Heart. The rich tradition of experience and teaching was subjected to definitive evaluations and clarifications in the struggle against the Quietists and Semi-Quietists. Thus arose the independent and organic treatment of spiritual theology as a whole. The boundaries between ascetic theology and mysticism were determined, and renewed attention was devoted to the process of prayer and contemplation; hence arose the problem that fascinated contemporaries: whether asceticism alone suffices for Christian perfection.

In the Benedictine School, Garcia de Cisneros (d. 1510) was the first to treat methodical prayer, preceded by Ludovico Barbo (d. 1443); Ludovico Blosio stands out above all. The Dominican School produced the treatises of Granata (d. 1588) and the speculative synthesis of Tommaso di Vallgornera (d. 1665); the proper notion of the love of God was studied by A. Massoulié and A. Piny. The Franciscan School is represented by St. Peter of Alcantara, Francesco di Osuna, Alfonso of Madrid, and Cardinal Brancati di Lauria.

Three new schools rapidly established themselves:

a) The Ignatian School, with a spirituality that is markedly ascetic, active, attained through methodical effort, and apostolic. Among the many disciples of St. Ignatius (d. 1556), who in the Spiritual Exercises gives particular prominence to the method of meditation, the outstanding figures are Alfonso Rodriguez, L. Lallemand, P. Segneri, who was the first to rise up against Molinos (Concordia tra la fatica e il riposo nell'orazione), and G. B. Scaramelli, who clearly separated ascetic theology from mysticism in Direttorio ascetico and Direttorio mistico.

b) The Carmelite School: a profound spirituality decisively oriented toward mystical union, whose characteristic asceticism consists in total renunciation and spiritual nakedness through an austere life, silence, interior recollection, and prayer. Its founder was St. Teresa of Jesus (d. 1582), together with St. John of the Cross (d. 1591). Their doctrine found authoritative interpreters who, from the 17th century onward, taught spiritual theology systematically: Giovanni di Gesù Maria, Tommaso di Gesù, Filippo della Trinità with the classic Summa theologiae mysticae, Baldassarre di s. Caterina, and Giuseppe dello Spirito Santo with his Cursus theologiae mystico-scholasticae.

c) French school; “its spirituality derives from the domains of faith and especially from the dogma of the Incarnation; incorporated into Christ through Baptism and consequently receiving the Holy Spirit, who comes to dwell in our soul, we must, by uniting ourselves with the Incarnate Word, glorify God who lives in us and imitate the interior virtues of Jesus, vigorously fighting against the adverse inclinations of the flesh or of the old man” (A. Tanquerey, op. cit., p. LIV). The founder of the school is Cardinal de Bérulle (d. 1629), with the Discours de l'Etat et des Grandeurs de Jésus; he was followed by P. di Condren, J. J. Olier, s. Giovanni Eudes, and s. Lud. Grignion de Montfort. s. Francesco di Sales and Bossuet may be associated with this school; among more recent figures, Msgr. C. Gay.

S. Alfonso de' Liguori (d. 1787), through his many treatises, spread Christian piety widely among the people.

From the end of the nineteenth century, a revival of spiritual studies became evident, owing to the general renewal of ecclesiastical scholarship and to contact with the golden centuries of spirituality through historical studies.

No aspect of a. is neglected, but the dogmatic side is generally given greater prominence. Historical and critical studies re-establish contact with the exceedingly rich and little-known Christian tradition, and prepare broader syntheses and the solution of new problems. A more extensive examination of the mystical tradition is still necessary (v.).

Recently, numerous “manuals” of spiritual theology have also appeared. In addition to responding to the need for synthesis and culture, they serve the purpose of instruction, which is recommended and required by ecclesiastical authority (cf. Ordinationes of the Congregation of Seminaries, 1931).

BIBL.: General works: P. Pourrat, La spiritualité chrétienne, 4 vols., Paris 1918-28; A. Portaluppi, Dottore spirituali attraverso la storia della religiosità cristiana, Milan 1929; M. Viller, La spiritualité des premiers siècles chrétiens, Paris 1931. - Sources and aids: J. de Guibert, Documenta ecclesiastica ad historiam spiritualitatis spectantia, Rome 1930; M.-J. Rouët de Journel-J. Dutilleul, Enchiridion asceticum, Freiburg im Breisgau 1930; J. de Guibert, s. V. in DSp. I, cols. 1910-17; J. Heernicke, Introductio in theologiam spiritualem, Turin 1931. - Treatises and manuals: C. Gay, De la vie et des vertus chrétiennes, 2 vols., Paris 1887; A. Saudreau, Les degrés de la vie spirituelle, Angers 1904; F.-X. Mutz, Christliche Aszetik, Paderborn 1907; J. Schryvers, Les principes de la vie spirituelle, Paris 1913; A. Tanquerey, Précis de théologie ascétique et mystique, ibid. 1924; id., Les dogmes généraux de la piété, ibid. 1926; F. Naval, Theologiae asceticae et misticae cursus, 2nd ed., Turin 1925; A. Farges, Les voies ordinaires de la vie spirituelle, Paris 1925; F. Murawski, Die aszetische Theologie, Munich 1928; J. et R. Maritain, De la vie d'oraison, new ed., Paris 1933; F. Olgiati, La pietà cristiana, Milan 1935. - Benedictines: V. LEHODEY, VITAL, Les voies de l'oraison mentale, Paris 1908; C. Marmion, Le Christ vie de l'âme, Maredsous Abbey 1914; id., Le Christ dans ses mystères, ibid. 1919; id., Le Christ idéal du moine, ibid. 1922; S. Louismet, The mystical Life, London 1918; A. Stolz, L'ascesi cristiana, Brescia 1943. - Dominicans: A. M. Meynard, Traité de la vie intérieure, Paris 1885; R. Garrigou-Lagrange, L'ascétique et la mystique: leur distinction et l'unité de la vie spirituelle, in La Vie Spirituelle, 1 (1920), pp. 145-65; id., Perfection chrétienne et contemplation, St. Maximin 1925; id., L'amore de Dieu et le Croix de Jésus, Juvisy 1929. - Journals of the school: La Vie Spirituelle, La Vida sobrenatural, Vita Cristiana. - Franciscans: A. de Denderwindeke, Compendium theologiae asceticae, Hong-Kong 1921, German translation Abriss der aszetischen Theologie, 2 vols., Paderborn 1930-31; G. Piccioli, Manuale di teologia ascetica, Turin 1932. - Jesuits: A. Poulain, Des grâces d'oraison, Paris 1901, 10th ed., ibid. 1922; R. de Maumigny, Pratique de l'oraison mentale, Paris 1905; M. Meeschler, Aszese und Mystik, Freiburg im Breisgau 1917; O. Zimmermann, Lehrbuch des Aszetik, ibid. 1929; L. M. von Hertling, Lehrbuch der aszetischen Theologie, Innsbruck 1930; J. de Guibert, Theologia spiritualis ascetica et mysticae, Rome 1937; id., Lecons de théologie spirituelle, I, Toulouse 1946 (with exhaustive bibliography). - Journals of the school: Revue d'ascétique et mystique; Zeitschrift für Aszese und Mystik. - Discalced Carmelites: Aureliano del S.mo Sacramento, Manuale cursus ascetici, Ernakulam (India) 1927; Crisogono di Gesù Sacramento, Compendio de ascetico y misticae, Salamanca 1933; Gabriele di s. Maria Maddalena, La Nittica Teresiana, Florence 1935; id., La contemplazione acquisita, ibid. 1938. - Journals of the school: Etudes Carmelitae: Vita Carmelitana; Rivista de Espiritualidad; Rivista di Spiritualità.

Roberto di S. Teresa del B. Gesù