ASCETICA, TEOLOGIA

ASCETICS, THEOLOGY OF. — Systematic doctrine relating to asceticism (q.v.).

The formula “theology of asceticism” seems to date only from the 17th century (in the Franciscan C. Dobrosielski, Summarum asceticae et mysticae theologiae, Cracow 1655, and the Jesuit C. Schorrer, Theologia ascetica, Rome 1658), alongside the much more common and ancient one of “mystical theology.” Once mysticism was restricted to a sector of the spiritual life, the two were treated separately (cf. G. B. Scaramelli, q.v.). Today the designation “spiritual theology” is gaining ground, as it expresses their fundamental unity of object and purpose: spiritual perfection.

In its most common sense, ascetics is that part of spiritual theology which studies Christian perfection attained through the ordinary means of grace. A theological science of Christian perfection, ascetics examines the problems pertaining to its nature and attainment.

Outline:

I. Nature

II. Sources

III. Method

I. Nature

Ascetics considers God as the first supernatural end, the supreme good that supernaturally finalizes human activity. Within this sphere of moral action, the long “return” of the rational creature to God (St. Thomas Aquinas, Summa Theologiae, I, q. 2, proem) involves two aspects: either limiting oneself to what is prescribed (the merely good and licit) or, by free initiative, striving for what is better and perfect. The first moment circumscribes moral theology, the second ascetics and mysticism. The latter draws from dogmatic theology the foundations of the supernatural life and from moral theology the bases of moral life; beyond this, everything concerning the development of the supernatural organism in man, its productive causes, means, obstacles, the various stages and vicissitudes in the actualization of virtue, constitutes the characteristic object of mystical ascetical theology. This becomes a point of convergence between dogmatic and moral theology, partaking of the speculative sublimity of the former and the practical interest of the latter.

Opinions on the relationships and boundaries between ascetics and mysticism are very disparate, with many nuances among representatives of the same school. Even today there are those who, under the heading of ascetics or mysticism, embrace the entire spiritual doctrine (F. Murawski, S. Louismet). Generally, however, two distinct treatments correspond to two names: the passive element characterizes mysticism. By passivity is meant the free action of God that influences the soul exclusively, while activity embraces the complex of immediate and direct efforts of the soul under the influence of grace. Ascetics is attributed the active element throughout the entire extent of the spiritual life, mysticism the passive element, which predominates in the unitive life. In this conception the relationship between ascetics and mysticism is very close, the two elements almost complementing each other (F.-X. Mutz, F. Cayré).

The two elements may also be considered more directly in relation to the intrinsic development of the spiritual life toward perfection. Some restrict the passive element to the charismatic and extraordinary sense, tending therefore to consider ascetics and mysticism as adequately and specifically distinct (A. Poulain, A. Farges, Chrysogonus of Jesus Sacramented); others understand it as universally necessary for holiness, not precisely extraordinary, and intrinsically link mysticism to ascetics, while recognizing that passivity belongs especially to the great advanced souls (A. Saudeau, R. Garrigou-Lagrange, J. Schryvers). Others focus more on the moment when passivity predominates: some extend ascetics up to the threshold of infused contemplation (A. Tanqueray), others more clearly reserve for it the purgative and illuminative ways (J. Zahn). For these, spiritual science is fundamentally one, as it is for those who propose middle solutions to the problem of the unity of the spiritual life (J. Heerinckx, J. de Guibert, Gabriel of St. Mary Magdalene).

One of the characteristic aspects of recent production is the discussion of the problem of “the unity of the spiritual life.” The question is whether ascetics and mysticism are two distinct paths to Christian perfection; in other words, whether mysticism, with infused contemplation, is necessary for holiness. Alongside extreme positions, middle solutions have also been proposed (cf. J. de Guibert, Theologia spiritualis ascetica et mystica, nn. 423-29; Gabriel of St. Mary Magdalene, Mistica Teresiana, pp. 125ff.). Theologians defend the various opinions independently of belonging to one or another school. The problem has not yet found a satisfactory solution because it is not perfectly delimited; notions are often confused, and there is no agreement on terminology. It involves extremely delicate questions of theology and supernatural psychology: operations of the gifts of the Holy Spirit, infused contemplation, affective knowledge—matters not clearly defined by scholastic tradition (F. V. BAINVEL, VINCENT, Introduction à la 7e éd. des «Grâces d'Oraison» du r. p. Poulain, Paris 1923, pp. XXXI-XXXVI and XLVII-XXX).

The general lines of the subject matter treated by ascetics are: 1) Christian perfection, the goal to be attained, a fundamental theme whose nature, constituent elements, attainability, and causality in the entire spiritual life are disclosed. 2) The forces that propel or hinder us, within and beyond man. Within man, it examines, with the aid of psychology, the various elements of human activity, their cooperation and their conflict (temperament, character, passions, relations between the senses and the spirit); with dogmatic criteria it analyzes the constitution of the supernatural organism and the dynamism that vivifies it (grace, infused virtues, gifts of the Holy Spirit). Outside man, the manifold divine causality and the nefarious diabolical intervention, the relationship between divine and human activity, discernment of spirits, spiritual direction. 3) Movement toward perfection: after outlining the path along which the supernatural organism evolves, it analyzes the manifold means and exercises by which spiritual progress is achieved: means with an inherent perfective efficacy (sacraments), purificatory and corrective means of human deficiency, elevative means of the spiritual faculties toward union with God (mortification, prayer, examination of conscience, apostolate). It then follows the three traditional successive stages of the journey: the purgative way or that of beginners, the illuminative way or that of the proficient, the unitive way or that of the perfect, leaving to mysticism in general the “passivity,” especially infused contemplation and certain special phenomena such as ecstasy, revelations, visions. It distinguishes the different states of life: contemplative and active, virginal and conjugal, in order to indicate the most appropriate norms for each.

II. Sources

2. Particular theological sources of ascetical theology are the works of ascetical writers, whether considered individually or grouped into the so-called “spiritual schools.” Their authority derives from their competence in the subject, but even more from their eminent spiritual lives—especially when they are saints—sometimes from particular approval by the Church (e.g., for St. Teresa), or from the unanimous approval of the centuries, as in the case of *The Imitation of Christ*. Among these, some stand out as exceptional authorities due to their learning, holiness, experience of many souls, solemn approval by the Church and the faithful: St. John of the Cross, St. Francis de Sales, St. Alphonsus Liguori (Heerinckx, nn. 80 ff.); J. de Guibert, op. cit., nn. 21-28).

3. Experimental sources are required by the very nature of ascetical theology, a science that is eminently practical and whose object is the supernatural as it is to be lived. They include:
a) The psychology of the human subject: the supernatural penetrates and intimately vivifies natural spiritual life while respecting its fundamental laws. The functioning of the psychic organism sheds light on many ascetical problems, helps to understand the development of the passions and their relationship to moral life, the influence of sensory impressions, the education of character, and various morbid psychic states that can closely mimic mystical phenomena. The great masters of ascetical theology have always cultivated psychological observation, and modern scholars make use of the findings of experimental psychology. General religious experience, which studies facts common to profoundly different religions, is not of great direct importance; yet it can confirm general theses on the value of certain spiritual factors, and negatively, it provides arguments to refute arbitrary assertions of non-Catholic critics who are quick to mistake accidental similarities for substantial identities.
b) The study of Catholic religious experience, through hagiography or biographies of persons of eminent piety, is of capital importance: assuming the conditions of veracity required by historical criticism, it allows us to see ascetical or mystical life in action in individuals differing in sex, temperament, condition, culture, time, and environment. By observing many supernatural facts, catalogued, compared, and framed within the scope of revealed ascetical truths, a solid experimental basis is provided for the spiritual science.
c) Personal experience (one’s own and that of others) is of great assistance, inasmuch as it facilitates judgment on the supernatural, much as taste and artistic initiation enable one to judge works of art. Indeed, it largely inspires the works of the great masters (St. John of the Cross, *Fiamma vita d’amore*, preface).

III. Method

The revealed principles of morality and theological truths are independent of any personal experience (e.g., the precept of charity, the necessity of actual grace), just as are the ethical and psychological truths of universal value. Ascetical doctrinal synthesis draws on these truths and principles in establishing the canons for moral activity directed toward perfection. This deductive method brings to light truths of absolute value, from which it derives the normal practical criterion. On the other hand, the supernatural life exhibits such a variety of forms that it is not possible, in individual cases, to rely solely on universal principles. Only through careful observation of varied phenomena can one accurately weigh each fact and trace its origin and significance: with this experimental and inductive method (improperly called descriptive), ascetical theology has at its disposal a positive foundation. The harmony of these two methods results in the fruitfulness of ascetical study. The exclusive use of the first leads to an unreal and arbitrary schematism; the exclusive use of the second diminishes ascetical theology as a science and easily leads to confusion between the accidental and the essential.

IV. History

Abundant ascetical teachings are found in all the great Fathers of the Church, especially in Chrysostom and Gregory the Great (v.). St. Augustine, as in other branches of theology, is an eminent master: perhaps his greatest merit lies in having brought to light the essential importance of charity as the substance of perfection and the measure of its degrees; and by analyzing the condition of man, affected by sin, he delineates the broad purificatory struggle necessary to restore in man the image of God, insisting on the means of such renewal: prayer and cooperation with grace.

Systematic original works are those of Cassian and John Climacus, who respectively summarized, for the West and the East, the monastic ascetical doctrine. They treat in detail the internal and external obstacles and the means of perfection, up to the heights of contemplation and the peace that is untroubled, the fruit of perfect charity. To the Pseudo-Dionysius the Areopagite, who is more directly concerned with mysticism, has been attributed the distinction of the three stages of the spiritual life. This period closes with John Cassian the Confessor (d. 662).

2. Medieval Period (11th–15th centuries). The Middle Ages were pervaded by ascetical fervor. Even the great scholastics took an interest in spiritual problems, and the so-called spiritual schools arose. These emerged from powerful personalities whose disciples, while sharing a common spiritual background, emphasized distinctive forms of life and the related problems. This intense vitality gave rise to an abundant literary production. Alongside the description of ascetical and mystical experience came the theological framing of the relevant issues. The different schools display a variety of subject matter and tone: lyric works alternate with treatises, practical and affective theologians with speculative ones.

a) The Benedictine School, which fosters serene contemplation through liturgical prayer, withdrawal, work, moderate austerity, and develops a tender love for the mysteries of Christ, is represented by St. Anselm and St. Bernard (PL 182-83), as well as by the eminent mystics Hildegard (d. 1179) and Gertrude the Great (d. 1301).

b) The School of Saint-Victor combines the affective speculative spirit of St. Augustine with the Platonism of the Pseudo-Dionysius, directing it toward the highest contemplation, and creates a method of superior, contemplative meditation. Its most distinguished members are Hugh (d. 1141), *De modo orandi*, *De vanitate mundi*, *De laude caritatis* (PL 176), and Richard (d. 1173), *De statu interioris hominis*; *Benjamin minor* (or *Liber de praeparatione animi ad contemplationem*) (PL 196); *Benjamin maior* (or *De gratia contemplationis*) (PL 195).

c) The Dominican School unites contemplative and apostolic spirituality with a doctrinal physiognomy. Aquinas illuminates nearly all questions pertaining to spiritual theology, from the analysis of the passions to the gifts of the Holy Spirit and contemplation (cf. F. Cayré, *Patrologia e Storia della Teologia*, II, Rome 1938, pp. 614-16). Important for its experience is St. Catherine of Siena (*The Dialogue*). To this school, though with its own and distinct physiognomy, belongs the triad: Meister Eckhart, G. Tauler, and E. Susone, who inculcate the most complete abnegation and the negative knowledge of God.

d) The Franciscan School is affective both in practice and in teaching; it is characterized by the cult of evangelical poverty and simplicity and by a passionate love for the humanity of Christ. These traits shine forth admirably in St. Bonaventure (d. 1274), who delineates the three stages of the spiritual life—purgative, illuminative, and unitive—in patterns accepted by later masters (*Itinerarium mentis in Deum*, *Incendium amoris*). In the experiential field, Angela of Foligno (d. 1309) is to be remembered.

e) The School of the *Devotio Moderna* (v.), which arose in the mid-14th century, displays mystical fervor and careful regulation of the interior life. Besides the great master John Ruysbroeck (d. 1381), who pursues above all complete renunciation with a view to intimate mystical union, there belongs to it Thomas à Kempis (d. 1471), and one may include John Gerson (d. 1429).

f) In the Carthusian School, the ascetic aim predominates with an affective method. Its principal representative is Denis the Carthusian (d. 1471), who summarizes the entire medieval ascetic-mystical spirituality.

### Modern and Contemporary Era (16th–19th Centuries)

Ascetical theology made decisive progress in method and dissemination with St. Ignatius, St. Francis de Sales, and St. Alphonsus; in mystical orientation with St. Teresa and St. John of the Cross; and in the deepening of dogma through the Christological doctrine of the French school, the practice of reparation, and the cult of the Sacred Heart. The rich tradition of experience and teaching was subjected to definitive evaluation and clarification in the struggle against the semi-quietists. Thus arose the independent and organic treatment of ascetical theology as a whole. The boundaries between ascetical theology and mysticism were defined, new attention was given to the process of prayer and contemplation, and the question that captivated contemporaries arose: whether ascetical practice alone suffices for Christian perfection.

In the Benedictine School, García de Cisneros (d. 1510) was the first to treat methodical prayer, preceded by Ludovico Barbo (d. 1443); Ludovico Blosius emerged as a leading figure. The Dominican School produced the treatises of Granata (d. 1588) and the speculative synthesis of Tommaso di Vallgrenera (d. 1665); the correct notion of the love of God was studied by A. Massoulié and A. Piny. The Franciscan School is represented by St. Peter of Alcantara, Francisco de Osuna, Alfonso of Madrid, and Cardinal Brancati of Lauria.

Three new schools rapidly gained prominence:

a) The Ignatian School, characterized by a markedly ascetical, active, and apostolic spirituality achieved through methodical effort. Among the many disciples of St. Ignatius (d. 1556)—who in the *Spiritual Exercises* emphasized the method of meditation—are Alfonso Rodríguez, L. Lallemant, P. Segneri (who first opposed Molinos in *Concordia tra la fatica e il riposo nell'orazione*), and G. B. Scaramelli, who in *Direttorio ascetico* and *Direttorio mistico* distinguished ascetical theology from mysticism.

b) The Carmelite School, with a profound spirituality decisively oriented toward mystical union, whose characteristic asceticism lies in total renunciation and spiritual nakedness through an austere life, silence, interior recollection, and prayer. Its founders are St. Teresa of Jesus (d. 1582) and St. John of the Cross (d. 1591). Their doctrine found authoritative interpreters who systematically taught spiritual theology from the 17th century onward: Giovanni di Gesù Maria, Tommaso di Gesù, Philippe de la Trinité (with his classic *Summa theologiae mystica*), Baldassare of St. Catherine, and Giuseppe dello Spirito Santo with his *Cursus theologiae mystico-scholastica*.

c) The French School, whose spirituality derives from the mysteries of faith and especially from the mystery of the Incarnation: "Incorporated with Christ through Baptism and thus receiving the Holy Spirit who comes to dwell in our souls, we must, by uniting ourselves to the Incarnate Word, glorify God who lives in us and imitate the interior virtues of Jesus, vigorously resisting the adverse inclinations of the flesh and the old man" (A. Tanqueray, *op. cit.*, p. LIV). Its founder is Cardinal de Bérulle (d. 1620) with *Discours de l'État et des Grandeurs de Jésus*; he was followed by P. de Condren, J. J. Olier, St. John Eudes, and St. Louis-Marie Grignion de Montfort. To this school may be linked St. Francis de Sales and Bossuet; among more recent figures, Monsignor C. Gay.

St. Alphonsus Liguori (d. 1787), with his numerous treatises, widely disseminated Christian piety among the people. From the late 19th century onward, a revival of spiritual studies is noted, driven by the general renewal of ecclesiastical science and contact with the golden ages of spirituality through historical studies.

No aspect of ascetical theology was neglected, though the dogmatic dimension was generally emphasized more. Historical and critical studies restored contact with the exceedingly rich yet little-known Christian tradition and prepared broader syntheses and solutions to new problems. A more extensive examination of the mystical tradition also became necessary (*v.*).

In recent times, numerous "manifestos" of spiritual theology have appeared. In addition to the need for synthesis and culture, they respond to the purpose of instruction, which is both recommended and mandated by ecclesiastical authority (*cf.* the *Ordinationes* of the Congregation of Seminaries, 1931).

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