PERSECUZIONI CONTRO I CRISTIANI. — This expression denotes the harassment suffered by the Church at the hands of the Roman Empire, from Nero (A.D. 64) to the promulgation of the so-called Edict of Milan (313).
The first signs of the p. seem to have arisen under Claudius [IV.], A.D. 50) when, according to Suetonius, that Emperor expelled from Rome the Jews who were rioting because of Chrestus (Vita Claudii, 25, 4; Act. 18:1; Rom. 16:3). That the phrase is to be related to Christianity is now commonly accepted (cf. H. Janne, Impulsore Chresto, in Ann. de l'Inst. de philos. et d'hist. orient., Brussels 1934, p. 254); whereas it is uncertain whether some obscure passages in a letter from Claudius himself to the Alexandrians refer to the matter (id., Un passage controversé de la lettre de Claude aux Alexandriens, in Rev. archéol., 5e series, 35 [1932], p. 273). In those years, as in the following decades, the general public did not distinguish Jews from Christians; consequently, the latter were caught up in the pagans’ hatred of the former.
The Romans tolerated the practice of all cults that were not contrary to the laws and morality, but they did not allow anyone to disregard those public manifestations that were connected with the public life of the nation, and in particular with the goddess Roma and the genius of the Emperor, which, especially in the provinces, were the mark of legitimate subjection. Christians, who shunned every religious ceremony and, at first, every public office, military service, and social obligation intimately connected with idolatrous acts, living apart and far from all manifestations of a licentious and profane life, were regarded as haters of the human race (v. ACCUSE CONTRO I CRISTIANI). Hence the authorities’ determination to exterminate them, as well as the pretext for popular riots.
I. LEGAL BASIS OF THE P
During the three centuries of the p., Christians lived in a hostile atmosphere, which at times became particularly violent. Nevertheless, despite all the hatred and calumnies accumulated against them, Christians could not legally be persecuted except by virtue of specific legal provisions enacted against them; indeed, there is no evidence that they were proceeded against for ordinary crimes. All agree that during the second century the rule established by Trajan was in force: «conquirendi non sunt (i cristiani), si deferantur et arguantur puniendi sunt». But on what legal basis did Trajan establish this procedure? Some (Le Blant) have therefore thought that Christians were persecuted under the common law enacted against crimes of lèse-majesté and impiety, rightly or wrongly attributed to Christians. Others, however (Profumo), think that a provision of Tiberius against every kind of enemy of the Empire and the Roman people was invoked, and that Nero was the first to apply it to Christians. Still others (Th. Mommsen), while admitting that Christians could quite legitimately have been persecuted under the existing common laws against those guilty of lèse-majesté, hold that they were nevertheless persecuted by virtue of the «ius coercitionis», granted to the Roman authorities in order to safeguard the security of the Empire and social peace: a police authority under which they could and had to act against all who in any way threatened the public good and order. Finally, others (P. Allard, C. Callewaert), and perhaps they are closer to the truth, think that Nero, following the investigation conducted after the fire, enacted a legal provision, that institutum Neronianum of which Tertullian speaks, summed up in the legal aphorism: christianos esse non licet. This also explains the persistence, among the Roman ruling classes, of hostility toward Christianity, which lasted for many years. One fact, however, is certain and universally admitted: Christians were persecuted for a religious reason. Whenever an accused person denied being a Christian, he was released; but if he persisted in his convictions, he was held guilty of a capital offense, which could entail death or relegation.II. JUDGMENTS, TORTURES, AND PENALTIES IN THE P
If during the Empire civil law was gradually becoming more lenient, criminal law, by contrast, was becoming more despotic and cruel. Torture, at first reserved for slaves, was extended also to plebeians, and new forms of punishment were continually devised. Christians bore the brunt of this intensification. Arrested by municipal agents or soldiers, they were confined in prison, where, however, with the interested connivance of the guards, they could be visited by relatives and friends who brought them food and clothing, and especially by ministers of the Church. The trial, in any case very brief, took place before the ordinary magistrate in the «secretarium» or in a public place in the presence of the people: the Christian was urged to comply with the laws, and attempts were made to induce him to do so even by torture, during which it was not uncommon for the victim to die. There was no need for witnesses or the defense of lawyers: recantation alone was sufficient to secure one’s freedom. The trial generally ended with a capital sentence, condemnation to forced labor, exile, decapitation, exposure to wild beasts or fire, crucifixion, immersion in boiling liquids, and other forms of death.III. HISTORY OF THE P
The first was instigated by Nero. The immediate cause is indicated by Tacitus (Annales, XV, 44) in the fire which, in July of A.D. 64, devastated 10 of Rome’s 14 regions. Accused by popular opinion of being its author, the Emperor shifted the blame onto the Christians, who were arrested en masse, tried, and condemned. Injustice was compounded by mockery and cruelty, since, to make the slaughter more spectacular, Nero opened his gardens to the public, where Christians covered with the skins of wild beasts were exposed to the bites of dogs, or, crucified, were burned to provide light during the night. Unfortunately, no trustworthy document has handed down their names, except those of the apostles Peter and Paul, the one dying by crucifixion, the other by decapitation. The p., which had broken out for a contingent and local cause, must also have extended to the provinces.From Nero’s death onward, owing to the internal struggles for the conquest of the Empire and the Flavians’ lack of interest, the Christians were left in peace. In his final years, however, Domitian became cruel and bloodthirsty because of his opposition to the Senate. The Christians too were caught up in the storm, perhaps because an attempt was made to involve them in payment of the tax imposed on all Jews and on those who lived «more judaico». In any event, Christian writers unanimously designate Domitian as the second persecutor. The persecution, so far as is known, struck illustrious persons, among them relatives of the emperor himself: Flavius Clemens and his wife Domitilla, and Atilius Glabrio. The apostle St John, according to the testimony of Tertullian (De praescrip. haeret., 36, 3), after being immersed in a cauldron of boiling oil, was banished to the island of Patmos. There were martyrs not only in Rome but throughout all the provinces of the Empire, as may be inferred from the Apocalypse, from Pliny’s letters to Trajan, and from Eusebius of Caesarea. Domitian recognized his error toward the Christians and revoked his orders (Tertullian, Apol., 5; Eusebius, Hist. eccl., III, 20).
Trajan (98–117) issued no new edicts of p., but regulated the procedure through the famous Rescript to Pliny the Younger (v.), and established that the Christians were not to be sought out; if brought before the authorities and proved to be Christians, they were to be punished if they did not renounce their faith by sacrificing; anonymous accusations were in any case not to be accepted. Tertullian noted the illegality of this provision (Apolog., 2), for if there was guilt among the Christians, they ought to have been convicted and punished for it, not for the fact of being Christians. There were victims under Trajan as well; among the most illustrious were Ignatius, bishop of Antioch, exposed to the beasts in Rome; Simeon, bishop of Jerusalem; and many others mentioned in the letter of Pliny the Younger and in that of St Polycarp to the Philippians.
The provisions which, in Trajan’s mind, were intended to mitigate the persecution by regulating its application remained in force under his successor Hadrian (117–38), who took care to prevent popular attacks against the Christians and to impress upon the governors of the provinces that they should act according to legal norms, also threatening severe penalties against false informers (Eusebius, Hist. eccl., IV, 8, 26). There were martyrs, among them Pope Telesphorus (137). The same situation continued under Antoninus Pius (138–61); St Justin speaks of certain Roman martyrs in his second Apology (ch. 1). During the reign of Marcus Aurelius (161–80), the application of the laws became more severe. He and his philosophical circle held Christianity in profound contempt. The populace, for its part, multiplied riots against the Christians as it saw them increase in number and social importance. The victims of this state of mind included in Rome St Justin, accused by the Cynic philosopher Crescens; the group of martyrs of Lyons (177; V. LEONE); and, at Smyrna, the venerable bishop Polycarp (v.). The same religious policy was continued by Marcus Aurelius’s son, Commodus, during the first three years of his reign. From 183 onward, his favorite Marcia obtained, among other favors, the return of certain Christians banished to Sardinia (Philosophumena, 9, 12). In those early years, however, there were still martyrs, especially through the hostility of certain governors. To this period belong those of Scilli (Africa), sacrificed at Carthage in 180; the senator Apollonius at Rome; and others in Phrygia, Syria, and Cappadocia. With the third century, relations between the Empire and Christianity assumed a new aspect, thanks to new legislative provisions; on the other hand, as the Church expanded ever further, it also acquired greater influence in social life, became organized, and came to possess property. A new persecutory policy was inaugurated by Septimius Severus (193–211). During his first years of government, involved as he was in struggles against his rivals, he did not alter the preceding jurisprudence. At the beginning of the third century, however, he issued a decree forbidding conversions to Christianity (Spartianus, Vita Severi, 17), and together with the neophytes and catechumens it also struck their teachers and instructors. As a result, the famous School of Alexandria, already flourishing, was closed, and many of its attendees were martyred (Eusebius,
Hist. eccl., VI, 1–5); the father of Origen and the virgin Potamia were also killed; at Carthage, Perpetua, Felicitas, and their companions (v.). Severus’s edict was also applied under his son Caracalla, especially in Africa (Tertullian, Ad Scapulam, 3 agg.); but Alexander Severus (217–35), according to his biographer, «christianos esse passus est» (Lampridius, Vita, 22). Maximinus the Thracian (235–38), who succeeded him, a rough and cruel man, in reaction against Alexander’s policy (Eusebius, Hist. eccl., VI, 28), sought to disorganize the Church by eliminating its leaders and, by an edict, condemned bishops, presbyters, and teachers to death. As a result, Pope Pontian and the presbyter Hippolytus were exiled to Sardinia; there were martyrs in Cappadocia, Palestine, and elsewhere.
The final phase of the p. was inaugurated by Decius (249–51). A rigidly conservative spirit, he decided, in order to avert the Empire’s collapse, to restore its foundations by reviving the official cult. For this purpose, in 250 he issued an edict ordering all citizens of the Empire, without distinction, to demonstrate their attachment to the fatherland by sacrificing and taking part in sacred banquets before the public authorities. But if the lapsi were numerous, the martyrs were no fewer: in Rome, Pope Fabian was the first victim. More certain and abundant information is available concerning the African martyrs; in his letters St Cyprian recalls many of them, while those of Egypt are remembered by Dionysius of Alexandria (Eusebius, Hist. eccl., VI, 40), and others occurred in Syria and Palestine (ibid., VI, 39), in Proconsular Asia, Pamphylia, and elsewhere. There were also many «confessores», that is, those who endured imprisonment and torments but did not lose their lives. The p., however cruel and terrible, did not last long: Decius was killed in November 251 during the war against the Goths.
Under his successor Gallus (251–53), the plague of 252 provided a pretext for renewed severity, because Gallus ordered public propitiatory sacrifices and, under pressure from popular fury, issued a new edict. Cornelius (v.), together with others, was banished to Centumcellae (Civitavecchia), where he died in 253; the Lucius (v.). It seems, however, that Gallus’s death prevented the Edict from being applied outside Rome.
During the first years of Valerian’s government (253–260), the Christians were not molested, and some of them were even at court. But in Aug. 257 Valerian, by an edict, ordered the heads of the Church to sacrifice under penalty of exile; the faithful were forbidden, under penalty of death, to attend their assemblies or enter the cemeteries (Eusebius, Hist. eccl., VII, 11). As a result, Dionysius of Alexandria (v.) and St. Cyprian (v.) were exiled; in Africa many other bishops, priests, and faithful were condemned to the mines (St. Cyprian, Epp., 76–79). In 258 a more severe edict was issued, by which capital punishment was imposed on the heads of the churches; the nobles were deprived of their dignities and their property confiscated and, if they still persisted, were subject to capital punishment; women were to be exiled, and the imperial officials condemned to perpetual slavery (St. Cyprian, Ep., 80). There were many victims after this Edict: at Rome, Pope Sixtus II, surprised while presiding over a liturgical assembly, was beheaded together with four deacons; St. Cyprian was recalled from exile to be beheaded. In Africa there were many other martyrs, among whom Marianus and James, Montanus, Lucius, and their companions stand out; in Spain, the bishop Fructuosus of Tarragona; others fell in Egypt, Palestine, etc. In 260 Valerian was taken prisoner and killed by the Persians; his son Gallienus revoked the edicts of persecution and restored all the confiscated property at the request of many bishops (Eusebius, Hist. eccl., VII, 13). From Gallienus until the beginning of the final persecution provoked by Diocletian, for approximately forty years the Christians lived in peace, consolidating their organization. There was a threat under Aurelian ([v.], 270–75), but without consequences, since Aurelian did not have time to promulgate any edict (Eusebius, Hist. eccl., VII, 30).
The final persecution was commonly attributed to Diocletian because he was the head of the tetrarchy governing the Empire, but its instigator was his Caesar Galerius. Peace reigned supreme in the Church (Eusebius, Hist. eccl., VII, 1) when, as a prelude, there occurred in 297 the purge from the army of all Christians.
Then, in Feb. 303, the first Edict appeared, ordering the destruction of the churches and the burning of the Holy Scriptures; noble believers were to be deprived of their dignities and plebeians of their freedom (Eusebius, Hist. eccl., VIII, 2). The Edict was immediately applied in the various provinces of the Empire, and martyrs were also made at Nicomedia (Eusebius, Hist. eccl., VIII, 6). Shortly afterward, at a brief interval, a second edict appeared, ordering the imprisonment of the ecclesiastical leaders, followed by a third, imposing the death penalty on anyone who did not sacrifice. There were many martyrs, but the situation worsened still further when, in 304, a fourth edict ordered that all believers without distinction should sacrifice under penalty of death: the blood of Christians flowed throughout every part of the Empire. In 305, however, Diocletian abdicated, followed by his colleague Maximian; Galerius and Maximinus Daia divided the eastern part of the Empire between them. There, in 306, an edict was promulgated ordering the governors to compel all Christians, through a roll call, to sacrifice; while in 308 a sixth edict ordered that all foodstuffs placed on sale in the markets be sprinkled with lustral water, and soldiers were to stand at the doors of the baths to force those entering to perform idolatrous acts (Eusebius, De martyr. Palaest., 4). In the West, on the other hand, after Constantius Chlorus became Augustus (305), and then his son Constantine in 306, the persecution in fact ceased. In 311 there was a sudden change. Galerius, the principal instigator of the persecution, being near death, issued an edict, also subscribed by Constantine and Licinius, in which he acknowledged the futility of his efforts against the Christians and granted them toleration. Maximinus Daia, their colleague, who had only verbally permitted the publication of the edict, became master of the entire East after Galerius’s death (May 311) and resumed the persecution, even provoking petitions from the various cities that the Christians be exterminated from the Empire. Meanwhile, in Feb. 313, on the occasion of Licinius’s marriage to Constantia, Constantine’s sister, Edict of Milan (v.) was promulgated. It immediately took effect throughout the West, where Constantine, owing to his victory over Maximinus at the Milvian Bridge, had remained sole emperor, and shortly afterward also in the East, where Maximinus was defeated and killed by Licinius. The official persecutions had ended with the victory and triumph of the Church.