Antipope

ANTIPOPE. - He is one who, elevated to the Papacy in a non-canonical manner, claims for himself its dignity and authority. He is therefore a usurper (sometimes in good faith) who, arrogating to himself a power he does not possess, being devoid as he is of a legitimate mission for the governance of the Church, creates in it not only an electoral schism, but, in the case of obstinacy, a true schism among the faithful.

The word a. entered common usage in the last centuries of the Middle Ages (cf. G. Villani, Nuova Cronica, IV, 18, 21, 26; X, 73, in Rerum Ital. Scriptores, XIII, 1728, cols. 112, 118, 121, 645; Letter of the Florentines, 22 May 1328: « ipse Bavarus cum ydolo suo [Nicholas V], quod antipapam nominat », in E. Baluze, Vitae Paparum Avenionemium, ed. G. Mollat, II, Paris 1928, p. 201; St. Catherine of Siena, Lett. 310, 317, 322, ed. L. Ferretti, IV, Siena 1927, pp. 376, 437; V, ibid. 1930, p. 15; St. Vincent Ferrer, De moderno ecclesiae schismate tractatus, ed. A. Sorbelli, in Atti., R. Dep., di Romagna, Bologna 1905, p. 345; St. Antoninus, Chronicorum, part III, tit. xxii, ch. I, ed. Lyon 1486, c. 390 etc. It is also found in some manuscripts of the Chronicum of Prosper of Aquitaine, but these are marginal annotations in 15th-century manuscripts: cf. ed. Th. Mommsen, in MGH, Chronica minora, I, 1892, pages 458, 469). Baluze uses for Nicholas V the expression Pseudoantipapa (cf. ed. cit., I, 1916, p. 143).

The classical word in antiquity and the early Middle Ages for a. and generally for an intruder was: Invasor; Invasor Sedis Apostolicae says the Liber Pontificalis (cf. ed. Duchesne, I, pp. 465, 471, 472, 475; II, 143, 290; Card. Deusdedit, Contra invasores et symonius et reliquos scismaticus, ed. Sackur, in MGH, Libelli de lite, II, 1892, pp. 300-365). In the Collectio Avellana (ed. O. Günther, in CSEL 35, 1, pp. 59, 80) one reads that Boniface I and Eulalius « episcopatum romanae Urbis contentionis ambitu pervaserunt » and reference is made to the « Eulali usurpatione ». The deacon John (early 6th century) uses for Lawrence the expression: Romanae ecclesiae pervasor et schismaticus (cf. A. Thiel, Epistolae Rom. Pont., I, Braunaberg 1868, p. 697). Schismaticus is very frequent as are Apostaticus and Antichristus (cf. Nicholas II, in Hefele-Leclercq, IV, 2, 1911, p. 1146; St. Bernard, Lett. 124, 126, 127, I, ed. Venice 1726, pp. 129, 133, 138; Libelli de lite, passim, where one finds the expression: antiabbatess and antiepiscopi [I, p. 357], not a.; St. Catherine, Lett. 306, 310, 312, ed. cit., IV, pp. 348, 373, 374; St. Vincent Ferrer, ed. cit., pp. 345-88, instruction to confessors, p. 432); Intrusus (cf. Martin de Alpartil, Chronica acitatorum temporibus Domini Benedicti XIII, ed. F. Ehrle, Paderborn 1906, passim, frequently uses the word anticardinales, not a.; St. Vincent Ferrer, ed. cit., pp. 340, 388); Contendentes (cf. Acts of the Council of Pisa 1409: Mansi, XXVI, passim); Competitor, Pseudo Papa, Adulterina Papa (cf. Platina, passim, he too uses the word anticardinales, not a.; cf. critical edition, p. 312). From the various authors cited and from very many others one could weave a whole long list of polemical epithets regarding the a., but that would be out of place here.

The history of the a. - which is at the same time the most sorrowful history of lay tyranny over the Church and of the servility or ambition of certain members of the clergy - begins at the start of the 3rd century with St. Hippolytus and ends in the middle of the 15th century with Felix V.

To determine precisely the number of the a. is today a very arduous task; indeed authors range between 25 and 40. This is due to the various criteria followed in determining the concept of a. (for example, Protestant historians attach value to the deposition of a legitimate pope for political reasons, which is rejected by Catholics) and to the scarcity and often also the partiality of the documents. On the other hand, some elections were so convoluted and factiously tumultuous that not even contemporaries were always able to clarify the legitimacy of the true Pontiff as against the competitor, as happened, for example, on the occasion of the great Western Schism with the two obediences: Avignon and Pisa, in contrast with the Roman, represented by Urban VI and his successors.

To avoid misunderstandings, in order to distinguish between pope and a. one must bear in mind:

1) whether the Apostolic See became vacant through the death or the free resignation of the Pontiff, the only legitimate causes for vacancy;

2) whether the legitimate electors were able freely to fulfill their mandate; or whether they themselves healed by a subsequent public act the defects of a non-canonical or at least doubtful election, as happened, for example, in the case of Vigilius.

3) whether the canonical norms in force for the individual elections were observed. It is in fact well known that the election of the Pontiffs (v. PAPA) passed through successive phases: in antiquity the norms current for the election of bishops were followed, to which the Roman Councils of 498 and 499, under Symmachus (Hefele-Leclercq, II, 2, pp. 947-949, 1349-66; cf. also the Roman Council of 465, ibid., pp. 903-904); of 769, under Stephen III (ibid., III, 2, 1910, pp. 734-35; cf. Constitutio romano of 824: MGH, Capitularia, I, p. 323); of 1059, under Nicholas II (cann. 1 and 2: Mansi, XIX, 897; ibid., IV, 2, 1911, pp. 1139-67); of 1179, under Alexander III (can. 1: ibid., V, 2, 1913, pp. 1087-88); and that of Lyon of 1274, under Gregory X (can. 2: ibid., VI, 1, 1914, pp. 183-86), brought clarifications or important modifications.

The same Councils threatened the most severe penalties against the a. and their supporters (cf. for example the sanctions of the Roman Synod of 769: Lib. Pontificalis, ed. Duchesne, I, p. 476 and the anathemas of 1059, can. 1: « non papa, sed satanas, non apostolicus sed apostaticus ab omnibus habeatur et teneatur »: Mansi, XIX, 897), penalties which in the current CIC are contemplated in can. 2314 and in ch. 6 of the Constitution Vacantis Apostolicae Sedis of Pius XII of 8 Dec. 1945 (AAS, 38 [1946], pp. 94-96).

The first imperial intervention in favor of an a. is that of Constantius for Felix II. Such interventions then multiplied under the Teutonic emperors from Otto I to Frederick Barbarossa. From the a. Constantine (767-68) to the a. Anacletus II (1130-38) the appointment of the a. is often due to factions led by noble Roman families, eager to hold in their hands the fortunes and the substance of the temporal domain, in the process of being constituted and settled: the nobility (exercitus romanus), the ecclesiastical patrimonial bureaucracy with its agricultural militia (familia s. Petri) and the clergy (venerabilis clerus headed by the proceres Ecclesiae) often found themselves in conflict for this reason.

Bearing in mind the terms of our definition and the principles enumerated, we have sought to compile a new list of a., divided into three sections: 1) authentic a.; 2) doubtful a.; 3) a. improperly so called. The a. are doubtful when there is difficulty in establishing the legitimacy of their election. Improperly are called a. those who lack the characteristics we have listed and were not the cause of a true schism; most often they are simple competitors overpowered or spontaneously subjected after the election.

Each individual a. will have his own entry for biographical data. We indicate only the elements that characterize their pseudo-pontificate.

1. — Authentic antipopes.

1. — ST. HIPPOLYTUS, Roman priest, 217-35. — Leader of a faction against Callistus for doctrinal reasons; he was reconciled with Pontian and died a martyr with him.
2. — NOVATIAN, Roman priest, 251-61, 258. — Elected by the followers of Novatus, against Cornelius for personal reasons, then for doctrinal ones.
3. — FELIX II, Roman archdeacon, 355-22 Nov. 365. — Imposed by the emperor Constantius at the time of the exile of Pope Liberius. Confused with the Roman martyr of the same name of the cemetery of the Via Portuense, commemorated in the Martyrologium Hieronymianum on 29 July.
4. — URSINUS, Roman deacon, 366-67 (expelled). — Elected by the supporters of the preceding antipope against Damasus, d. after 381.
5. — EULALIUS, Roman archdeacon, 27, consecrated 29 Dec. 418 - 29 March 419. — Elected by the deacons, while the priests and part of the people elected Boniface I. He was expelled by force; all trace of him is subsequently lost.
6. — LAURENTIUS, Roman archpriest, 498, again 501-507. — Elected by the faction of the patrician Festus against Symmachus.
7. — VIGILIUS, Roman deacon, 29 March-11 Nov. 537, d. 7 June 555. — Caused to be elected by Belisarius after the violent deposition of Silverius, recognized as legitimate Pope at the death of Silverius (11 Nov. 537).
8. — PASCHAL, Roman archdeacon, end of 687. — Elected, like Theodore, by two factions; he refused to resign at the new election of Sergius (15 Dec. 687), carried out by the majority. Shut up in a monastery, he died obstinate in 692.
9. — CONSTANTINE, layman, of Nepi, 28 June, consecrated 5 July 767-1 Aug. 768. — Elected by Duke Toto of Nepi and his partisans at the death of Paul I (28 June). The election was invalid, as was the candidate's lay status.
10. — CHRISTOPHORUS, Roman priest, Oct. 903-Jan. 904. — He imprisoned Leo V and took his place.
11. — LEO VIII, layman, protoscriniarius, 4, consecrated 6 Dec. 963 - 1 March 965. — Elected, though a layman, in the Roman Synod of 4 Dec. 963, after the deposition of John XII willed by Otto I more for political reasons than out of love for good morals. John XII died on 14 May 964 and had as his successor Benedict V (22 May), deposed a month later (23 June) by Otto and Leo, who died at Hamburg on 4 July 965 or 966.
12. — BONIFACE VII, Francone, Roman deacon, June-July 974, again Aug. 984-July 985. — With the favor of Crescentius he first did away with Benedict VI (June 974), then, driven out by the imperial missus Sicco and having returned from Constantinople, with John XIV (20 Aug. 984).
13. — JOHN XVI, Philagathus, bishop of Piacenza, Apr. 997-Feb. 998. — Raised to the throne by Crescentius, son of the preceding, against Gregory V, afterwards driven out by Otto II. He probably died at Fulda in 1013.
14. — GREGORY, 1012. — Elected by the faction of Crescentius against Benedict VIII; all trace of him is subsequently lost.
15. — SILVESTER III, John, bishop of Sabina, 20 Jan.-10 March 1045. — Elected tumultuously by the Romans in agitation against Benedict IX, who reappeared in Rome in the following April.
16. — BENEDICT X, John, bishop of Velletri, 5 Apr. 1058-24 Jan. 1059. — Elected by the Roman nobility while the clergy responsible for the election, headed by St. Peter Damian and Hildebrand, elected Nicholas II, enthroned in St. Peter's on 24 Jan. 1059. Benedict X was deposed in the synod of Sutri (Jan. 1059).
17. — HONORIUS II, Cadalus, bishop of Parma, 28 Oct. 1061-1072. — Elected at Basel with the favor of the empress Agnes, regent, against Alexander II. He persisted in the schism until his death (1072).
18. — CLEMENT III, Guibert, archbishop of Ravenna, 25 June 1080, consecrated 24 March 1084-8 Sept. 1100. — Elected in the pseudo-synod of Brixen (25 June 1080) at the will of Henry IV against Gregory VII.
19. — THEODERIC, bishop of S. Rufina, Sept.-Dec. 1100. — Elected by the supporters of the preceding. Paschal II in 1101 relegated him to the abbey of Cava, where he died in 1102.
20. — ALBERT, bishop of Sabina, Feb.-March 1102. — Elected by the supporters of Guibert. Paschal II relegated him to the monastery of S. Andrea of Aversa.
21. — SILVESTER IV, Maginulf, archpriest of S. Angelo, 18 Nov. 1105 - 12 Apr. 1111. — Elected by the imperial party against Paschal II, to whom, abandoned by Henry IV, he gave obedience in 1111.
22. — GREGORY VIII, Maurice Burdin, archbishop of Braga, 8 March 1118 - Apr. 1121. — Imposed by Henry V against Gelasius II. Captured at Sutri in 1121, he died in relegation around 1136.
23. — ANACLETUS II, Pietro Pierleoni, cardinal priest of S. Maria in Trastevere, 14, consecrated 23 Feb. 1130-25 Jan. 1138. — Elected and supported by the faction of the Pierleoni against Innocent II.
24. — VICTOR IV, Gregory, cardinal priest of the SS. Apostoli, 15 March - 29 May 1138. — Elected by the faction of the Pierleoni; but he gave obedience to Innocent II in the following May.
25. — VICTOR IV (V), Octavian of Montecelio (Tivoli), cardinal priest of S. Cecilia, 7 Sept., consecrated 4 Oct. 1159 - 20 Apr. 1164. — He proclaimed himself elected and was supported by the party of the emperor Frederick Barbarossa against Alexander III.
26. — PASCHAL III, card. Guido of Crema, 22, consecrated 26 Apr. 1164 - 20 Sept. 1168. — Elected by the imperial party at the death of Victor IV.
27. — CALLISTUS III, John, abbot of Strumi, Sept. 1168 - 29 Aug. 1178. — Elected by the imperial party at the death of Paschal III, he submitted to Alexander III on 29 Aug. 1178.
28. — INNOCENT III, Lando of Sezze, 29 Sept. 1179 - Jan. 1180. — Elected by the imperial party; captured and relegated to the monastery of Cava.
29. — NICHOLAS V, Pietro Rainallucci of Corvaro (Rieti), 12, consecrated 22 May 1328-25 Aug. 1330. — Caused to be elected by Louis the Bavarian against John XXII, to whom he afterwards gave obedience on 25 Aug. 1330.
30. — CLEMENT VII, card. Robert of the counts of Geneva, 20 Sept., consecrated 31 Oct. 1378-16 Sept. 1394. — Elected at Fondi by the French cardinals, with the tacit approval of three Italian cardinals, against Urban VI, whose election they contested as illegitimate, an election which it is difficult today to doubt if one wishes impartially to take account of all the documentation for and against and in particular of the testimonies of St. Catherine of Siena

(cf. especially Lett. 310, 312, 313, 317, ed. cit., vol. IV), of card. Robert himself and of all the cardinals (letters to the emperor Charles IV, 14 Apr. and 8 May 1378) and of the cardinals of Avignon (letter to Urban VI, received in Rome on 24 June 1378: cf. N. Valois, La France et le Grand Schisme d'Occident, I, Paris 1896, pp. 64-65: Pastor, I, pp. 118-58, documents, pp. 799-807). With this election begin the most sorrowful disputes of the great Western Schism, and the so-called Avignon obedience has its beginning.

31. - BENEDICT XIII, Card. Pedro de Luna, Sept. 28, consecrated Oct. 11, 1394-May 23, 1423. - Successor of the preceding: deposed by the Council of Pisa on June 5, 1409 and by the Council of Constance on July 26, 1417. He continued his resistance, withdrawing to the castle of Peñíscola, supported by Alfonso V of Aragon.
32. - ALEXANDER V, Card. Pietro Filargo, June 26, consecrated July 7, 1409 - May 3, 1410. - Elected by the Council of Pisa. With him the Pisan obedience begins.
33. - JOHN XXIII, Card. Baldassarre Cossa, May 17, consecrated May 25, 1410-May 29, 1415. - Successor of Alexander V, deposed by the Council of Constance on May 29, 1415.
34. - CLEMENT VIII, canon and provost of Valencia, Gil Sánchez Muñoz, June 10, 1423 - July 26, 1429. - Elected by the cardinals of Benedict XIII. He submitted to Martin V.
35. - BENEDICT XIV, a certain Bernard Garnier of Rodez, as it seems, Nov. 12, 1425-1430. - Elected in secret by Card. Jean Carrier, a follower of Benedict XIII, in protest against the election of Clement VIII. This comic election (antipope of the antipope) should not even be taken into account, were it not that it represents the last stubborn resistance of the great schism. In the territory of the Count of Armagnac, a supporter of this latter antipope, some fanatics were still awaiting the revenge of Benedict XIV in the year 1467 (cf. Pastor, I, p. 253).
36. - FELIX V, Amadeus VIII of Savoy, Nov. 5, 1439, consecrated July 24, 1440 - Apr. 7, 1449. - Elected by the Council of Basel, against Eugene IV, deposed by the aforesaid Council. He submitted to Nicholas V, who created him cardinal bishop of Sabina; he died on Jan. 7, 1451.

2. - Doubtful antipopes.

1. - HERACLIUS, 309 or 310. - This figure, not further identified, is said to have caused a schism in the Roman community, as is evident from the Damasan poem in honor of Pope Eusebius (cf. ed. A. Ferrua, Epigrammata Damasiana, Vatican City 1942, no. 18, p. 131; cf. also the poem in honor of Pope Marcellus, no. 40, p. 181).
It is not clear whether his faction elected him in opposition to Pope Eusebius, or whether he remained a mere faction leader; it is certain, however, that both were sent into exile.
2. - BONIFACE II, Roman archdeacon, Sept. 22 - Oct. 14, 530, d. Oct. 17, 532. - Designated, in defiance of the canonical norms in force, by Felix IV (III) as his successor and accepted by a minority, while the Alexandrian deacon Dioscorus (Sept. 22 - Oct. 14, 530) was elected by the majority of the clergy, including 60 presbyters, the senate and the people. Good reasons argue for the legitimacy of Dioscorus, who was removed by death 22 days after the election. Boniface was then recognized by all as true pope. Doubts remain about the legitimacy of the appointment made by Felix IV, when one considers that Boniface himself, after having elected the deacon Vigilius as his successor, at the remonstrances of the clergy that this was "contra canones," felt obliged to rescind his act, publicly burning the chirograph of appointment before the confessio of St. Peter (cf. Lib. Pontificalis, ed. Duchesne, I, p. 281).

3. - St. EUGENE, of the Roman clergy, Aug. 10, 654 - Sept. 16, 655. - Elected while Martin I was still alive, imprisoned at Constantinople. It seems that Martin did not protest. He was certainly legitimate pope upon the death of his predecessor (Sept. 16, 655).
4. - SERGIUS III, bishop of Cère (Cerveteri), first months of 904. - Elected in 898 at the same time as John IX, who had himself consecrated at once thanks to the favor of Emperor Lambert, Sergius reappears at the beginning of Jan. 904 to overthrow the antipope Christopher; he has himself consecrated on the 29th of the same month, but probably Leo V, imprisoned by Christopher, was still alive. In which case the beginnings of his pontificate would be illegitimate. It should be noted that Sergius regarded as antipopes his fortunate competitor John IX and his successors.
5. - GREGORY VI, Giovanni Graziano, archpriest of St. John ante Portam Latinam, May 5, 1045 - Dec. 20, 1046. - See the following notice. There are good chances that he was a true Pope.
6. - CLEMENT II, Suitger of the lords of Morsleben and Hornburg, bishop of Bamberg, Dec. 24, consecrated Dec. 25, 1045 - Oct. 9, 1047. - Benedict IX had resigned, it seems freely, in Jan. 1045, securing for himself a pension (others say he sold his office) in favor of his godfather, the pious priest Giovanni Graziano, Gregory VI, who was hailed by St. Peter Damian himself as true pope. Henry III had him deposed (or did he resign? the matter is not clear) at the Council of Sutri (Dec. 1046) and imposed Suitger, whose legitimate election may be doubted, if that of Gregory VI, certainly not very clear, is admitted.
7. - BENEDICT IX, Theophylact of the counts of Tusculum, formerly true pope, but one who renounced, Nov. 8, 1047 - July 17, 1048. - If the spontaneity of his renunciation in favor of Gregory VI is admitted, his reappearance, on the dates indicated, on the seat of Peter must be considered illegitimate. However, in this whole sad affair of Benedict IX one gropes in the dark.

3. - Antipopes improperly so called.

1. - DIOSCORUS, Alexandrian deacon, Sept. 22 - Oct. 14, 530. - There are no reasons to regard him as an antipope; his memory, anathematized by his competitor Boniface, was rehabilitated shortly afterward by Agapetus I.
2. - PETER and THEODORE, Roman archpriest and priest, Aug. 2 - Oct. 21, 686. - Competitors in the election upon the death of John V (Aug. 2); the first elected by the clergy, the second by the senate, nobility and army. To remove all discussion the clergy proceeded to the election, well accepted by all, of Conon (Oct. 21).
3. - THEODORE, again Sept. 21 - Dec. 15, 687. - Upon the death of Conon (Sept. 21, 687), Theodore, having become archpriest, was again elected together with the archdeacon Paschal. A new election was then held in the person of Sergius I (Dec. 15). Theodore did not insist, while Paschal rebelled.

4. - THEOPHYLACT, Roman archdeacon, late Apr.-May 757. - The pro-Byzantine party attempted to elect him, upon the death of Stephen III (II); but the majority proclaimed Paul I. The faction was dispersed by force.

5. - PHILIP, priest of the monastery of St. Vitus, July 31, 768. - Elected, the see being vacant, by the priest Waldipert, envoy of King Desiderius, by the Lombard army and by some Romans, following the capture of the antipope Constantine. On the evening of the same day, however, he was honorably led back to his monastery and no more was said of it. Philip does not have the characteristics of a true antipope.

6. - [ZINZINUS], Roman priest, Feb. 824. - Upon the death of Paschal I (Feb. 11, 824) there were two competitors: Zinzinus, as Panvinio calls him (cf. Chronicon eccl., p. 72), while the sources are silent about his name, and Eugene II, both elected: however, after the intervention of the monk Wala, Eugene was recognized by all as pope, and Zinzinus was no longer spoken of.

7. - JOHN, Roman archdeacon, Jan. 844. - Upon the death of Gregory IV (Jan. 25, 844) there were again two competitors: John and Sergius, both elected, but the latter was consecrated at once. Of the other there is no further question.

8. - ANASTASIUS, the Librarian, Roman priest deposed in 853, Aug.-Sept. 855. - Louis II, not having recognized the election of Benedict III, his missi sought to impose on the clergy the new candidacy of Anastasius; the clergy did not yield and the election of Benedict was reconfirmed. We are therefore faced with a failed attempt.

9. - CELESTINE II, Tebaldo Buccapecus, Dec. 15-16, 1124. - Regularly elected by the cardinals, while the Frangipani were backing Card. Lamberto of Fagnano, bishop of Ostia, and the Pierleoni Card. Saxo. Tebaldo abdicated, and Card. Lamberto was then elected, as Honorius II.