of St Isidore of León (completed in 960), with Arab influences, the *Vigilianus* (Escorial Library, no. 976) and the *Aemilianus* (ibid., no. 980).
Among the most celebrated productions of the 10th–12th centuries are the works belonging to the Ottonian Renaissance, partly derived from the Carolingian. The principal schools are: the Benedictine school of Reichenau, with the *Evangelistary* of Egbert (960; Trier Library), a work of the miniaturists Kerardus and Eribertus, and the *Evangelistary* of Otto III, known as the Bamberg (c. 1010; National Library of Munich); that of Trier, which gains importance in the mid-11th century when the Reichenau school declines; the lesser schools of Cologne, Ratisbon, and those derived from the latter, namely Salzburg, Prüfening, and Prague.
In England, the school of Winchester is important, with the Benedictionary of Æthelwold (c. 975, Devonshire collection at Chatsworth) and the Missal of Robert of Jumièges (11th century; Rouen Library). Linked to it is the Franco-Saxon manner of northern France, with the Gospels of Amiens (c. 1040) and the Life of St Omer (c. 1050; Saint-Omer Library).
During the Romanesque period, in 12th-century France, important centres are the Benedictine abbeys, especially the school of Cîteaux, with initials adorned with animals (Bible of Souvigny, c. 1125; Paris, National Library). Zoomorphic initials also appear in the manuscripts of the ‘Franco-Saxon’ school of the north (Bible of St Bertin [c. 1150], Paris). In Germany, against the prevailing Byzantine influence, the Middle Rhine school emerges around the end of the 12th century, with manuscripts already almost Gothic in their drawing style (the *Hortus deliciarum* of Herrad of Landsberg, 1205; the *Scivias* of St Hildegard of Bingen, c. 1190, at Wiesbaden). But the most interesting and original manuscripts of this period are undoubtedly those of England (Psalter of St Alban [c. 1130, Hildesheim], Psalter of Eadwin of Canterbury [c. 1150, Cambridge], Psalter of Henry de Blois [c. 1160, British Museum], Winchester Bible [c. 1180]).
3. The Gothic period outside Italy
Manuscript illumination in France becomes the art *par excellence*; it shows very close affinities with that of southern England, and it is sometimes difficult to distinguish the two schools. But especially Paris sees, in the 13th century, many workshops of lay artists, and already at the beginning of the 13th century works appear with well-defined stylistic characteristics and compositions in medallions that in some way relate to the then-flourishing art of stained glass (Psalter of Blanche of Castile [c. 1215; Paris, Arsenal Library, no. 1186]; Psalter of Joan of Navarre [c. 1225, Manchester], the historiated Bibles: including the Moralized Bible in 4 volumes, with over 5,600 compositions [c. 1240; National Library of Paris, Oxford and the British Museum]). Between 1250 and 1275 many works were produced by the Parisian workshops for St Louis, distinguished by light tones, the almost complete abolition of gold grounds, and refined, elegant figures in realistic settings. Also characteristic are the ‘drôleries’ (animated scenes in marginal decoration), e.g. in the Lectionary of the Sainte-Chapelle (Paris, National Library). Major works include the two Psalters of St Louis (1254, Paris, National Library; c. 1270, Thompson collection). Among the productions of southern England are to be noted: the Psalter of St Louis (c. 1210, Leyden), the Psalter of Queen Ingeborg (c. 1210, Chantilly), the two Psalters of Trinity College (before 1220) and the Psalter of Robert of Lindsey (c. 1220; Society of Antiquaries, London); the ‘drôleries’ of the Missal of Henry of Chichester (c. 1260, Manchester); but particular interest attaches to the style of a group of Franco-English Apocalypses (Duo Apocalypse c. 1270, British Museum; Trinity College Apocalypse [ms. R. 16.2]) and of Lives of Saints (Life of St Alban c. 1260, Dublin, Trinity College). Among the Parisian workshops of the end of the century, one of the most famous is that of Master Honoré, author of the Breviary of Philip the Fair (1296, Paris, National Library) and the Decretum of Gratian (1288, Tours Library).In Germany, in the 13th century, an important centre is in Saxony; masterpiece: the Psalter of Herman of Thuringia (c. 1210, Stuttgart). But in general Romanesque styles survive, because Gothic art asserts itself in German illumination only in the first decade of the 14th century.
4. Illumination in the 14th–15th centuries outside Italy
French illumination is dominated by Jean Pucelle, to whom are attributed the Bible of Robert of Billyng (1327, Paris, National Library, lat. 11935) and the Breviary of Belleville (1317, Paris, ibid., lat. 10483), and who at the same time exercised great influence on Germany and even on Italy, especially at Naples under the Angevins. In the time of Charles V a more pronounced note of realism enters illumination, and many productions of this period are associated with the name of Jean de Berry, who gathered around him the most famous miniaturists: Master of the Bouqueteaux, so called from his manner of drawing little trees (Bible of Charles V [in the Arsenal, Paris]), Jacquemart de Hesdin, the Limbourg brothers, and others.5. Illumination in Italy
Italian illumination, having passed through Byzantine and then transalpine experiences, asserts its own character in the works of the Benedictine scriptoria of southern Italy, including the *Exultet* rolls of the 11th–12th centuries (Vat. Barb. lat. 592; Casanatense Library, ms. 724/3; Bari, Mirabella, etc.). The greatest centre was Montecassino (Miracles of St Benedict, 11th century, Vat. lat. 1202; *Chronicon Vulturnense* from the early 12th century, Vat. Barb. lat. 2724), but in central Italy too the monasteries of Subiaco and Farfa boast the 12th-century Bibles studied by Toesca (see, e.g., that in the Augusta Library of Perugia, cod. L. 59). In northern Italy there is the Roman Missal of the Ambrosiana (D. 84 inf.) with German influences, and the Sacramentary of Ivrea (c. 1010; Ivrea, Chapter Library) with Ottonian influences; this influence is often combined with the Byzantine (see the Ambrosian Missal from the early 11th century [Ambrosian Library, A 24 inf.]), which becomes more pronounced after the capture of Constantinople (1204). In the 13th century, alongside religious illumination there was also secular (the *De arte venandi cum avibus* of Frederick II [Vat. Pal. lat. 1071]). Especially at Naples, during the reign of Robert of Anjou, illumination developed more extensively with a blend of French and Sienese elements and a marked taste for realistic scenes. French influence and naturalism also characterize the Bolognese school (the *Digestum in fortia* of Justinian [Turin, National Library, ms. E. 1.8]) and has its chief representatives in Oderisi of Gubbio and Franco Bolognese. Tuscan influences are found instead in Niccolò di Giacomo (Novella in the *Libri Decretalium* of Giovanni d’Andrea [dated 1354; Milan, Ambrosian Library, B 42 inf.]; the *Tragoediae* of Seneca [ibid., C. 196 inf.] and the *Book of Creditors* of the Monte di Pietà [1394, Bologna, State Archives]). From Niccolò of Bologna a predecessor and close follower has been distinguished, known as the Pseudo-Niccolò (Decretals of Boniface VIII, *Constitutiones Clementis V*, from the Chapter Archive of Padua). Active until about 1425 is Jacopo di Paolo, distinctly Bolognese in his manneristic evocation. At Rimini, Neri is to be remembered, who left two signed and dated 1300 manuscripts, revealing contacts with Florentine art; and also the Antiphonary of the Civic Museum of Bologna, nos. 1 and 2, and the Antiphonary in the Olschki collection in Florence.MINIATURE — Zoomorphic initial. Codex Lateranensis 79, fol. 251 (11th–12th century) — Rome, Archive of the Basilica of St John Lateran.
MINIATURE — Manuscript of the Lombard school. Adoration of the Magi. *Officium Beatae Virginis Mariae*, fol. 230 (15th century) — Modena, Estense Library.
The spread of miniature painting to secular books contributed to the establishment, by lay collectors, of fine private libraries; suffice it to recall that of Petrarch, the first nucleus of the Marciana Library in Venice. But above all, the Signori loved to have at their courts also book illustrators; in Milan, at the court of the Visconti, in the second half of the 14th century, worked Pietro da Pavia (see his realistic scenes and representations of birds and insects in the *Naturalis Historia* of Pliny at the Ambrosian Library, E 24 inf.); Anovelo da Imbonate (miniaturist of the Coronation Missal of Gian Galeazzo Visconti); Giovannino and Salomone de Grassi, to the first of whom are also attributed some miniatures of the *Tacuinum sanitatis* (Rome, Casanatense Library, ms. 459), which, however, includes later miniatures, to be dated to the 15th century. The Sienese school in the 1300s was dominated by Simone Martini (see the frontispiece of the Virgil at the Ambrosian Library) who exerted his influence also on the French school, to which seems linked the follower Maestro del codice di s. Giorgio. Also active were Niccolò Tegliacci (see the Assumption in the so-called Caleffo of the State Archive of Siena), Lippo Vanni, who reveals Lorenzetti influences, and in the 1400s Giovanni di Paolo and Sano di Pietro. The diffusion of the Sienese pictorial school is found in Perugia, Naples, the Abruzzi and elsewhere. Florence, at the beginning of the 1300s, had a miniature school of Sienese influence in the convent of Santa Maria Novella (Evangeliarum of the National Library of Florence, II, I, 167), while the plastic tendencies of Giottesque derivation were affirmed by Pacino di Bonaguida (Bible of the Trivulzian Library of Milan [cod. n. 2139]), and by others (Laudario of the National Library of Florence [II, I 122 BR 18] and *Ammaestramenti degli antichi* of Bartolomeo da San Concordio of 1342). In the second half of the 14th century, Sienese influence is instead very evident in the works of the Camaldolese school of Santa Maria degli Angeli, dominated by Don Simone, pupil of the Orcagna, and by Lorenzo Monaco (see his Antiphonarium of the Laurentian Library [Choral 3], illuminated in collaboration with other Florentine artists, including Beato Angelico).
The development of publishing during Humanism gathered around the printers of the time a host of miniaturists, such as the Arrezese Antonio del Cherico (*Canzoni e Trionfi* of Petrarch [Trivulzian Library, cod. n. 905], the Antiphonarium of the Laurentian Library [Edili 151] and the *Opera varia* of St. Augustine at the Vatican [Urb. lat. 79]); Filippo di Matteo Torelli, author of the best among the miniatures of the Evangelistary of the Laurentian Library (Edili 115); Gherardo and Monte del Fora, also revealing Flemish influences (see, e.g., the Missal of the National Museum of Florence, datable to 1474-76); and, among the most famous, Attavante degli Attavanti, with a tone of decoration perhaps too lavish and overloaded (*Opera varia* of St. Augustine [Florence, Laurentian Library, plut. 12, 28], of St. Ambrose [ibid., plut. 1423], the Urbinate Bible of the Vatican [cod. Urb. lat. 1-2], the Antiphonarium [ibid., Choral 4] illuminated in collaboration with Giovanni Boccardi, known as Boccardino Vecchio. In Naples in the 15th century, at the court of Alfonso of Aragon (1396-1458), were active Giovacchino de Gigantibus, Nicola Rapicano (*miniature in La opera de Maiestate* of Maio Giuniano of 1492 [Paris, National Library, Italien 1711]) and Reginaldo Piramo da Monopoli; in Perugia the painters Perugino and Pinturicchio; in Siena the painters Girolamo da Cremona and Liberale da Verona. A particular interest presents the Ferrarese school which left a truly magnificent work in the famous Bible of Borso (1455-61, in the Estense Library), mainly by Taddeo Crivelli assisted by Franco de' Russi who reveals Venetian-Paduan reminiscences (see some miniatures of the *Divine Comedy* [Vatican Library, Urb. lat. 365], and of the Four Gospels [ibid., Urb. lat. 10]) and Marco dell'Avogaro, with a manner close to that of Girolamo da Cremona. Other miniaturists: Guglielmo Giraldi (*Noctes Atticae* of Aulus Gellius [1448, Ambrosian Library] and Psalterium of the Estense Library [ms. Lat. 990, Q. 4.9] in collaboration with Alessandro Leoni); Martino da Modena (see his many miniatures of the *Missale Romanum* of the Trivulzian Library of Milan [Cod. n. 2165]); l'Argenta; the Fleming Matteo da Milano; the Marmitta of Parma; Battista del Cavalletto and the painter Amico Aspertini of Bologna. In the Lombard Quattrocento, Michelino de Mulinari da Besozzo emerges (Sermon in the National Library of Paris, cod. lat. 5888); Giovanni di Maestro Ugolino da Milano (Missal of the cathedral of Fermo); Belbello da Pavia (*Book of Hours* of Filippo Maria Visconti, completing the miniatures of Giovanni and Salomone de Grassi, and Missal of the cathedral of Mantua); Cristoforo de Predis (*Book of Hours Borromeo* in the Ambrosian Library, Lib. ore 4, signed); Antonio da Monza, the Pseudo Antonio da Monza, perhaps identifiable with Gian Andrea da Mantua (some miniatures of the *Book of Jesus*, executed for Massimiliano Sforza between 1496 and '98 [Trivulzian Library of Milan, cod. n. 2163] and of the *Grammatica* of Donatus [ibid., cod. n. 2167]).
With the 16th century, throughout Italy, miniature painting saw its end both through internal exhaustion and the advent of external causes; the principal one being the introduction of the printed book, which, however, continued for some time to be adorned also with miniatures. See plates LXVII-LXIX.
