Tomb

TOMB. - The tomb is of interest to the history of civilization as an often irreplaceable testimony to the creative aptitudes of very ancient peoples, constituting in itself an autonomous artistic entity, like the temple and the house of civil dwelling. For more recent civilizations it offers equally cogent documents, being a complex to which architecture, sculpture and painting contribute in an interesting dialectic of exchanges.

The purpose of the tomb, expressing one of the spiritual needs most deeply rooted in the human soul, is held in great honor by almost all religions, and generally determines the allusive or symbolic orientation of its particular forms. Consequently the meaning of the monument varies according to the dominant ideas and the strength and purity of the religious sentiment that invests it, in the various epochs and cultures. Since it was always a point of honor for the representatives of the dominant classes, in every period of history, to indicate the degree of their power and excellence by the sumptuousness, imposingness and beauty of their tombs, these became in certain epochs and civilizations true and proper celebratory monuments, in which the homage to the deceased is transcended by the intention of affirming his presence as a symbol of a dynastic or genealogical continuity, or of the idea that was incarnated in him (one need only think of the tombs of the Egyptian, Babylonian, Aztec and Inca kings; of the mausoleum of Pergamon, of the tomb of Augustus and of Hadrian, down to the contemporary mausoleums of Lenin and Stalin).

The most evident differentiation of Christian civilization from the others, ancient and recent, appears instead, from its very origins, to be the adaptation of funerary monuments to religious buildings, with a clear criterion of subordination, both for tombs erected outside and for those placed inside churches. Thus too the Christian mausoleum (that of Constantia in Rome, of Galla Placidia in Ravenna) and the various family chapels that constitute its equivalent in the modern era were conceived as places of worship, in which homage is rendered to God, and human remains are piously received. This clear ordering concept, which was never abandoned as long as the laws did not forbid burial in churches, did not prevent the widest variety and originality of forms: for the Church did not mortify the ambitions of patrons, but contained them within a limit of tolerability and decency.

The funerary art of the epochs of greatest splendor of Christian civilization was, moreover, the preserve not of artisan workshops (as very often in Greece and Rome), but of supreme artists, who not infrequently left their masterpieces in arks, tombs and sarcophagi. This is the principal reason why any classification based on affinities of profiles and silhouettes proves, in the final analysis, insufficient, not allowing an exact progression even in chronological gaps. In any case, for the sake of synthesis, certain schemes will be followed here that allow a general orientation (for the early Christian period, and for particular forms and customs, v. the respective entries, such as ARCA; CIMITERI; SARCOFAGI, etc. V. also BIZANTINA, ARTE; ITALIA, ARTE).

In the pre-Romanesque and Romanesque period tombs were placed inside churches and in cloisters: either beneath the pavement — differentiated by inscriptions and sometimes by graffiti and bas-reliefs reproducing the image of the deceased on the slab — or else, already with monumental intentions, set against the walls, enclosed within clean and sober frames (niches, entablatures, pilasters) or faced with plutei and chancel screens, especially within the sphere of the persistent Byzantine influence (tomb of the dogaressa Michiel in the atrium of St. Mark's in Venice). Very often recovered arks (Greek, Roman) were adapted to the purpose, changing the inscription and building carved bases and supports, sometimes decorated with mosaic (Cosmatesque tombs of the Savelli, in S. Maria in Aracoeli, in Rome). Even tombs detached from the walls assume similar characteristics. They have a base with or without a baldachin (this consists of four columns supporting a low pitched roof). The decoration is limited to some frieze or to figurations on the lid or the sides of the ark (tombs of the Norman kings in the cathedral of Palermo). In the open air some imitate the ancient monuments of the consular roads (the so-called tomb of Bohemond at Canosa), but the most common type is with a baldachin, also in the contamination between Romanesque and Gothic (tombs of the Bolognese glossators).

In the Gothic period the architectural element, and consequently the decorative one, undergoes greater development

(the same figure of the deceased is generally shown two or three times, in the attitudes of life and of death).

The impetus toward these solutions was given by the masterpieces linked to the names of Giovanni Pisano (v.), Arnolfo di Cambio (v.) and Tino da Camaino (v.). The most complex example of this system in Italy is perhaps the tomb of King Robert of Anjou in S. Chiara in Naples, half-destroyed during the war, by the two Florentines Pacio and Giovanni Bertini (1343). In the tomb of Bishop Tarlati in the cathedral of Arezzo, by the Sienese Agostino di Giovanni and Angelo di Ventura, documentary and celebratory bas-relief intervenes in zones with superimposed registers.

In the Cosmatesque tombs in Rome (monuments to Luca Savelli and to Honorius IV in S. Maria in Aracoeli), the influence of Gothic culture instead always appears tempered by a need for clarity and compositional coherence induced by classical models. In the baldachins the primary and fundamental function of spatial divisions is preserved. Painting (fresco or mosaic) is used to integrate the backgrounds and sometimes the adjacent walls themselves (monument to Cardinal d'Acquasparta in S. Maria in Aracoeli): a practice that also prevails outside Rome (monument to Tommaso Pellegrino in S. Anastasia in Verona), and that would be transmitted to the early Renaissance (Brenzoni monument in S. Fermo in Verona, with frescoes by Pisanello). Here painting takes the place of bas-relief, which is instead the preferred form of decoration in the late Gothic and the Renaissance.

Even in the open air, Gothic tombs assume complex and fantastic cadences in articulated vertical sequences. More sober are those leaning against walls, through a natural subjection to the mass of the religious building (tomb of Falconi and adjacent arches outside the church of S. Margherita at Bisceglie; tombs in the facade of S. Giacomo Maggiore at Bologna; in the sides of S. Maria Novella at Florence; of the Doria in the cloister of S. Fruttuoso at Capodimonte Ligure).

The most striking novelty of the late Gothic is the resurrection of the equestrian monument, usually placed on the ark (tombs of the Scaligeri at Verona; monument to Bernabò Visconti, by Bonino da Campione, now in the Archaeological Museum of Milan [1380]; to P. Savelli in S. Maria dei Frari at Venice, with horse and rider in wood [1401]; tomb of Cantelmi at Badia Morronese [1412] and Camponeschi in S. Biagio at L'Aquila [1432], with wooden statues by Gualtiero d'Alemagna).

However complex and articulated the Gothic constructions of central and southern Italy may be, they do not reach the complications in which the artists beyond the mountains, and also the Lombard ones, take pleasure (ark of St. Augustine in S. Pietro in Ciel d'oro at Pavia, by the Maestri Campionesi [1360-80], derived from the more unified ark of St. Peter Martyr in S. Eustorgio at Milan, by Balduccio da Pisa, etc.).

Recurrent is the compositional theme of the curtain, which often constitutes the architectural framing (tomb of Card. Petroni at Siena; of Margherita di Durazzo, in the cathedral of Salerno, by Baboccio [1402]; monument to Tommaso Mocenigo in S. Giovanni e Paolo at Venice, by Pietro di Nicolò Lamberti and Giovanni di Martino da Fiesole [1422]; ark of Azzone Visconti in S. Gottardo at Milan, by Giovanni di Balduccio; monument Brenzoni in S. Fermo at Verona by Nanni di Bartolo), succeeding through the already substantial fortunes of the Renaissance (monument to Maria d'Aragona in Monteoliveto at Naples, by Antonio Rossellino and Benedetto da Maiano; tomb of the diva Isotta in the Tempio malatestiano at Rimini, by B. Ciuffagni) in reaching an era of uncontested triumph in the Baroque, which would derive from it the most fantastic variations.

A more linear development has, until the 15th century, the ground tomb, generally covered by a slab of marble or bronze, initially emerging from ground level and later made level with it. Since these are commissions almost always entrusted to anonymous workshops, or monuments so worn as no longer to be stylistically decipherable, artistic interest in them is rare. We shall recall nevertheless the slab with a very fine web of Byzantine ornaments of S. Cumiano at Bobbio (7th century); the slab with the mosaic portrait of Muñoz de Zamora in S. Sabina at Rome, and the other with the equestrian portrait of Beccadelli, by Bitinio da Bologna (1341), in the Museum of that city.

They would return to favour in the 15th century, thanks to artists of high fame (tomb slab of fra' Leonardo di Stagio Dati, in S. Maria Novella at Florence, by L. Ghiberti; of Giovanni Crivelli in S. Maria in Aracoeli at Rome [1432] and bronze of bishop Pucci in the cathedral of Siena [1427], both by Donatello; slab with marble inlays of bishop Bartoli in the cathedral of Siena, by Federighi [1444]).

Natural development of the ground tomb, the tomb on a socle, consisting of an ark on a podium detached from the wall, with the portrait of the deceased lying on the lid, generally erected in side chapels, or in the arms of the transept, had wide fortune, especially in France. The most famous examples in Italy belong to the era of the early Renaissance, which understood the plastic value of the monument isolated within the architectural setting (tomb of Ilaria del Carretto in the cathedral of Lucca, by Jacopo della Quercia [1406]; double tomb with the side-by-side portraits of Ludovico il Moro and Beatrice d'Este, in the left arm of the transept of the Certosa di Pavia, work of Cristoforo Solari [c. 1497]). This type, preferred by reigning houses (double tombs of the French kings in S. Denis; of the Swedish kings in the cathedral of Uppsala; of Enghelberto II in the cathedral of Breda, etc.) is probably related to the liturgical ceremonial of noble funerals. Between the tomb slab and the socle type is placed the bronze tomb of Sixtus IV in the Vatican grottoes, masterpiece of A. Pollaiolo (v.), to whom is also due the wall tomb of Innocent VIII in S. Peter's. Substantially the 15th century does not determine appreciable departures from the iconography of the preceding period; adapted to criteria of constructive organicity and of scansion into precise geometric recurrences. At Florence and in Tuscany Donatello and Michelozzo, Antonio and Bernardo Rossellino, Desiderio da Settignano, Mino da Fiesole dominate the field.

In the tomb of John XXIII in the baptistery of Florence, Donatello (with Michelozzo and Pagno di Lapo Portigiani) introduces elements of clear classical morphology into the decoration, but preserves the Gothic arrangement of the wall tomb with the lofty ark and the baldachin; likewise in the monument Brancaccio at S. Angelo in Nilo at Naples (with Michelozzo), the Renaissance manifests itself only in the substitution of the Corinthian column for the piers of the baldachin.

A place apart is occupied by the tomb of the jurist Varj in S. Domenico at Bologna, by Jacopo della Quercia, which frees the sarcophagus from the baldachin and fixes it to the wall with powerful brackets. More typical of the new figurative civilization, in all the details of the decoration, especially in the plastically simplified compartments, contained beneath the wide arch, the monument to Leonardo Bruni, in S. Croce at Florence, by Bernardo Rossellino, preserves the portrait of the deceased, reclining on the ark. From this tomb derive the facing monument to Marsuppini, by Desiderio da Settignano; and others by A. Rossellino and Benedetto da Maiano, at Naples, by Mino da Fiesole, by A. Rossellino at Florence, by Matteo Civitelli at Lucca, by Simone Ferrucci at Forlì, etc. In the so-called tabernacle tomb, a more secure equilibrium between horizontal and vertical lines is realized, in the square frontispiece. It is the type preferred by the marble-workers active in Rome in the 15th century (tomb of Eugene IV in S. Salvatore in Lauro, by Isaia da Pisa; tombs executed by Andrea Bregno [v.] and his school).

Through the influence of A. Rossellino and Mino da Fiesole the scheme will soon be enriched with decorative elements and busts placed in niches (monument to Card. Albret in S. Maria in Aracoeli, by Bregno). An analogous layout, with the variant of the frame with panels of coloured majolica, presents the tomb Federighi in S. Trinita at Florence, by Luca della Robbia. To Mino da Fiesole is due the diffusion of another scheme destined to have wide fortune: the ark, supported by brackets, without architectural framings, is set against a dichromatic background of marble slabs with the bust of the deceased beneath the ark (as in the monument to bishop Salutati in the cathedral of Fiesole), or above (tomb of Mantegna in S. Andrea at Mantua; with medallion by M. Cavalli 1506). Capponi would adapt the bust portrait to the Bregno scheme (monument to the brothers Bonsi in S. Gregorio al Celio at Rome).

The most tenacious infiltration of the Gothic in northern Italy stimulates artists to results of compromise.

Typical examples are the tombs of Amadeo, graceful and sensitive to Tuscan models in the Colleoni chapel at Bergamo, but unrestrained in the unbalanced, very lofty, and yet suggestive ark of S. Lanfranco at Pavia (1498). The masterpiece of Venetian funerary architecture (which has a Tuscan prototype in the already mentioned monument to Tomaso Mocenigo) is the mausoleum of doge Nicola Tron, in the church of the Frari, by A. Rizzo and assistants in c. 1473. Overpopulated with statues in the five registers of the tall and imposing front, it will influence all the funerary art of the lagoon.

Also Pietro Lombardo and his son Tullio, although influenced by Rizzo's teaching, created a masterpiece (the tomb of Doge Pietro Mocenigo, in Ss. Giovanni e Paolo, 1485). Among the best examples one may also recall the base tomb of Cardinal G. B. Zeno in St. Mark's in Venice, cast in bronze by P. Savin; the Roccabonella monument in St. Francis in Padua, with bronze bas-reliefs by B. Bellano (1498); the Onigo monument in St. Nicholas in Treviso, with frescoes by L. Lotto (around 1502).

From Gothic models derives the arcosolium tomb (the sepulcher of T. Pepoli in St. Dominic in Bologna), preferred by L. B. Alberti (also the exteriors of the Malatesta temple in Rimini, and, within it, the monument of Sigismondo Malatesta). The bare ark is set into the wall, beneath a vault, or in rectangular niches. A masterpiece of this type, in a variant determined by the use of bronze, is the tomb of Giovanni and Piero de' Medici, in the sacristy of St. Lawrence in Florence, by Verrocchio (v.).

In the 16th century, the sepulchral monument too conformed to that concept of the "grandiose" that would dominate all the art of the century, chiefly through Michelangelo's influence. The first decisive novelty is the triumphal-arch structure, articulated by means of subordinate lateral members (simulating the lesser archways). The definition of the type is due primarily to Andrea Sansovino (the tomb of Cardinal Ascanio Sforza, 1505, and of Cardinal Girolamo Basso della Rovere, 1507, in St. Mary of the People in Rome). The use of strongly projecting columns becomes constant; and the contrasts of light and shadow bring about the pictorial vision proper to the Mannerist language. From this scheme depend the tombs of Cardinal Michiel and of his nephew Bishop Orso (with the two arks and their respective portraits superimposed) in St. Marcellus al Corso in Rome (1503-11); the monument to Adrian VI in St. Mary of the Soul, by B. Peruzzi; and many others of popes and eminent personages, down to those of Pius V and Sixtus V, in the side chapels of St. Mary Major in Rome, by D. Fontana and F. Ponzio respectively, which mark the point of junction with the Baroque. Sansovino also renews the conception of the funerary portrait. The deceased, still lying on the ark, is nevertheless raised on his elbows and turns his face, resting on his hand, toward the viewer, as in Etruscan sarcophagi. Soon every allusion to death would be abandoned, and the occupants of the tombs would be presented in their typical attitudes as living persons, as already in the tomb of Innocent VIII by Pollaiolo in St. Peter's. The liveliest and most fanciful among the monuments of this type is that of Luisa Deti, in St. Mary sopra Minerva (with sculptures by Nicolò Cordier), in which elements of the polychrome Baroque decoration already abound. The scheme has examples also in other Italian regions, where, however, the 15th-century tradition offers more tenacious resistance (the monument to M. Ferdinando and F. D'Afflitto in St. Mary Nuova in Naples; to Giacomo Medici, in the cathedral of Milan, by Leone Leoni). In Venice it is introduced by Jacopo Sansovino (v.) (the monument to Francesco Venier, in St. Salvatore, where, however, the deceased is still lying in the traditional attitude).

Characteristic 16th-century monumental organisms, developed according to the ideas dominant in the century, even outside this scheme, are the ark of the Saint in St. Anthony in Padua (A. Briosco called il Riccio, Minelli dei Bardi, J. Sansovino, Falconetto, and Tiziano Aspetti, author of the altar, worked on it throughout the 16th century); and, in another direction, the tomb of Queen Bona of Poland in St. Nicholas in Bari, occupying with its columned compartments the great curve of the apse. The queen appears at the center, turned toward the high altar in an attitude of prayer, according to a scheme that would be widely employed in the following century in Italy and abroad (the tombs of Charles V and of Philip II, at the Escorial, by Pompeo Leoni). Alongside these grandiose monuments, in the 16th century private tombs of small format multiply, with a frontispiece layout. The fundamental element there is the bust or the painted portrait medallion, around which are joined elements of classical entablature, frames, brackets, volutes, pediments, caryatids, putti with garlands, etc. To the scheme G. L. Bernini would later give a definitive formulation with the monument to Pietro Montoya in St. Mary of Montserrat in Rome (with bust), on which the others of the 17th and 18th centuries depend, in an uninterrupted filiation that through the Baroque and Rococo would reach the Neoclassical. A fine example of this type, with a painted medallion, is, in the church of St. Mary sopra Minerva, the tomb of V. Ubaldini della Gherardesca. Sometimes the frontispiece is purely architectural and frames an urn (the Ponziani tomb in St. Andrew in Mantua) or an hourglass (the monument to G. Sforzani, in the cathedral of Reggio Emilia, by P. Clementi).

To the 16th century also belongs the creation of the true and proper chapel-mausoleum, inserted as a functional organism into the religious building (and for this reason different from the 15th-century prototypes, such as the Pazzi Chapel by Brunelleschi in St. Cross in Florence, or the Colleoni Chapel, in St. Mary Antiqua in Bergamo, by Amadeo). Often such constructions are the work of supreme artists and provide fundamental elements for the exegesis of their language. For Michelangelo (the Medici Chapel in St. Lawrence in Florence) and for Raphael (the Chigi Chapel in St. Mary of the People in Rome), reference is therefore made to the individual entries.

Here we shall limit ourselves to recalling the Carafa Chapel in the cathedral of Naples, by Malvito (1497-1507), and the sumptuous and complicated Spinelli Chapel in St. Catherine at Formello.

in Naples. The Trivulzio chapel in S. Nazzaro in Milan occupies a place apart, originally arranged as an atrium of the larger building (v. BRAMANTINO), a masterpiece of essential organic unity, which had no following in the grandiloquent age of Mannerism and the Baroque.

To Michelangelo, for his tombs in the sacristy of S. Lorenzo, goes the authorship of the scheme that would prevail in the monumental constructions of the Baroque, receiving its official consecration in the tomb of Paul III in St. Peter's, the work of Guglielmo della Porta. The pyramidal theme brings the compositional center back to the square of the ark, abolishing every superfluous motif and exalting the plastic rigor of the few allegorical statues and of the portrait of the deceased, placed on the ark. No new invention of subject (except perhaps the architectural one of the monument to Avila in S. Maria in Trastevere in Rome, which reveals its Borrominian source) characterizes the Baroque, which takes pleasure in complicating, sometimes with skillful scenographic results, the already charged iconography of the Sansovinian schemes (monument to Doge Pesaro by A. Longhena and M. Barthel, 1699, in the church of the Frari in Venice), or Raphaelesque ones (chapel of S. Severo with the mausoleum of the Sangro family, in Naples, begun in 1590 and brought to its present form through enlargements and additions of 1610 and 1799), or else distorts the Michelangelesque ones with the intrusion of picturesque elements, such as the Gothic curtain and the complicated draperies (monument to Gregory XV in S. Ignazio in Rome, by Pietro Le Gros and Stefano Monot).

The most sumptuous monuments of the 17th and 18th centuries are the tombs of the popes in St. Peter's (monument to Gregory XIII by C. Rusconi; to Leo XI by A. Algardi; to Urban VIII and to Alexander VII, both by G. L. Bernini; to Clement X by M. de Rossi, with sculptures by E. Ferrata, G. Mazzuoli and L. Morelli; to Innocent XI by C. Maratta and S. Monet; to Alexander VIII by A. di San Martino, with sculptures by F. della Valle; to Benedict XIV, with sculptures by A. Bracci and G. Sibilla), and in other Roman churches (monument to Innocent X in S. Agnese, by G. B. Maini; to Clement IX in S. Maria Maggiore, by F. Rainaldi; to Benedict XIII in S. Maria sopra Minerva, by C. Marchionni and P. Bracci; to Clement XII in the mausoleum chapel of the Corsini family in S. Giovanni in Laterano, architecture by A. Galilei, sculptures by G. B. Maini and G. Monaldi, a masterpiece of Italian funerary art in the transition from the Baroque to the Neoclassical).

Rome is therefore in this period the city that holds an undisputed primacy, as regards number, quality and variety of funerary monuments. The greatest artistic personalities working there all contributed to establishing this primacy; but the influence exercised by G. L. Bernini - who does not depart from the great Michelangelesque model, but enriches it, with the polychromy of the marbles and with marginal devices and inventions - is certainly more resonant than that of P. Borromini (Falconieri monument in S. Giovanni dei Fiorentini in Rome; arrangement of several tombs in the side aisles of S. Giovanni in Laterano) or of Pietro da Cortona (v.) and of C. Maratta, and will set the standard, for monumental complexes, until the appearance of Canova. One of the most fortunate Berninian inventions is that of the Cornaro chapel in S. Maria della Vittoria, in which the members of the family are represented as they lean out from two side balustrades.

The late Baroque is characterized by the extravagance of ornamental motifs and by the often arbitrary arrangement of the same Renaissance and Baroque schemes (monument to Maria Clementina Sobieski in St. Peter's; to Maria Flaminia Odelscalchi Chigi in S. Maria del Popolo in Rome). Flying angels appear supporting the portraits of the titular figures high above the urn (monument to Cardinal Imperiali in S. Agostino, by P. Posi, with sculptures by P. Bracci); or else it is the Virtues that perform the same office (sculptures by D. Guidi in the aforementioned Falconieri monument in S. Giovanni dei Fiorentini); but the most substantial innovation is the vast application of macabre motifs, already introduced by Bernini in the tombs of Alexander VII and Urban VIII; realized, however, in a material so precious and so resplendent with chromatic harmonies, as to lose any allegorical effectiveness.

In the tombs of the princes of Zagarolo in S. Francesco a Ripa, by G. Mazzuoli, 1713-14, a skeleton in black marble offers the medallions of the titular figures, white cameos standing out against the pink of the Raphaelesque background pyramid and against the cold mottled jaspers framed by arabesques in gilded metal, of the architectural partitions and of the arks; in the Ghisleni tomb in S. Maria del Popolo a skull of yellow marble shows itself in the half-light behind a grating.

The most extravagant example of this inclination of taste is offered by the cemetery of the church of the Capuchins in Rome, where the entire decoration is prepared with authentic human bones. We are, as is easy to infer, outside the domain of art: but the singular complex provides the most perspicuous index of a mentality that will have multiple repercussions on works of art, prompting that search for clamorous effects, of questionable and substantially vacuous taste, which will generate the saturation of the Baroque and the rigid Neoclassical reaction. Outside Rome, especially in Naples and Venice, cities that boast flourishing schools of painting, funerary art competes with painting in the search for chromatic effects (as in the enormous bright curtain studded with arabesques of the monument to Patriarch Francesco Morosini in the church of the Tolentini in Venice, by F. Parodi), or in a virtuosity that becomes an end in itself (as in the sculptures of Sanmartino, Corradini and Queirolo, in the chapel of S. Severo in Naples). The Neoclassical reaction brings about, first with A. Galilei and subsequently with Canova, a return to the essentiality of architectural structures and of the motifs of plastic decoration, totally abandoning polychromy.

Even while respecting the Michelangelesque scheme of pyramidal composition, Canova succeeds in personal inventions (monument to Clement XIV at the SS. Apostoli and to Pope Clement XIII in St. Peter's), in the manner of composing the groups in articulated cadences, restoring the dignity of symbols to the statues adjacent to the arks; while the portraits preserve, in their oratorical gesticulation and simulated inner recollection, a realistic vigor, not unaware of the Berninian lesson. To achieve these results Canova definitively abandons the motif of the background curtain and sets up the compositions on a sharp square of planes directly on the walls, or makes them project onto the Raphaelesque pyramid (monument of Queen Christina, in the church of the Augustinians in Vienna).

Neoclassicism also revives the Greek funerary stele (Canovan monuments to the Stuarts in St. Peter's; to Giovanni Volpato in the atrium of the SS. Apostoli in Rome), which soon becomes the preferred scheme.

All the funerary art of the early 19th century proceeds in the footsteps of Canova: but the epigones translate the master's suggestions into rigid formulas, by now emptied of any vibration of feeling. At no moment will monumental funerary art appear so frozen and vacuous in its measured and peremptory forms, even when the executors are the most accredited masters of the moment (monument to Pius VIII by P. Tenerani; to Gregory XVI by L. Amici: both in St. Peter's). Along the line of this cold and insignificant academicism one will proceed down to our own days (monument to Pius IX in S. Lorenzo fuori le mura, by C. Cattaneo; to Leo XIII in S. Giovanni in Laterano, by A. Tadolini; to Pius X by P. E. Astorri and F. di Fausto; to Pius XI by P. Canonica: both in St. Peter's).

The tombs of private individuals were collected in the large suburban cemeteries, many of which present grand scenographic facades (by V. Vespignani, in Rome, 1862; by C. Maciacchini in Milan, 1866; by C. Partini, in Florence). The stylistically most dignified one is the cemetery of Staglieno (Genoa) by C. Barabino (1835).

The funerary monuments collected in these complexes have not yet been adequately studied, and at first sight they arouse an impression of inarticulate disorder, piling up the most disparate forms of incongruous imitation (from the Romanesque or Gothic type of mausoleum, to the great Renaissance frontispieces, to Neoclassical stelae, etc.). Al-

Some artists nevertheless executed statues there that achieved great renown (such as the Inconsolabile in the Camposanto of Pisa and the group of the Pietà in that of Siena: both by Dupré). Lorenzo Bartolini revived the niche tomb in a most noble interpretation in the interior of Santa Croce in Florence (monument to Princess Zamoyska, with the portrait of the deceased lying on the sarcophagus). - See plates XXVII-XXVIII.

Riccardo Averini