Vatican

VATICAN. - The State of Vatican City (S.C.V.) was created and defined on 11 February 1929 by the Lateran Treaty. Its name sums up its character and location.

I. GEOGRAPHY.

Extending over barely 440,000 square meters, it is the smallest State known and is entirely enclosed within the urban perimeter of Rome, on the slopes of a hill that has remained substantially outside the Roman built-up area. Its boundaries therefore coincide in large part (to the N., W. and S.) with the wall circuit erected by the Pontiffs (Paul III, Pius IV, Pius V and Urban VIII), between 1550 and about 1640, to enlarge and defend this "city," while to the east, from Porta Cavalleggeri to the Museums, where it is not marked by the street network, the limit is interrupted altogether, as at St. Peter's Square and Bernini's colonnade. Here the boundary line is marked only on the pavement of the square, by a strip of travertine joining the two arms of the colonnade and, in fact, receding as far as the Arco delle Campane, the columns and gates of the Basilica and the "Portone di Ferro."

The territory of the State of Vatican City takes roughly the shape of a trapezoid with its longer side to the S. Its maximum width (from E. to W.) slightly exceeds one kilometer (1045 m.); its length is even less (850 m.). Elevation rises from 19 m. above sea level at St. Peter's Square to 77.5 at the Vatican Gardens; on the NW. walls it drops to 56.5. One third of the territory is occupied by buildings, one third by squares and courtyards, the remainder available for possible construction.

Outside this proper territory of the State, several smaller and separate areas remain, still within the boundaries of Italian territory, but with the benefits of "extraterritoriality" and of "exemption from expropriation and taxes," or of both together. Such areas cover a total surface of about 700,000 sq. m.; the largest (about 400,000 sq. m.) is that occupied by the Papal Palace, the Villa and Palazzetto Cybo and the Villa Barberini at Castel Gandolfo, the summer residence of His Holiness. There follow the Villa Gabrielli on the Janiculum, the Palaces of the Holy Office, of the Lateran (with the Basilica and the Scala Santa), of the Dataria, of the Cancelleria, of Propaganda Fide, of St. Callixtus in Trastevere, of the Oriental Church and of the Vicariate. The Palaces of the Gregorian University, of the SS. Apostles, those annexed to the church of St. Andrew della Valle and of St. Charles ai Catinari, the Biblical, Oriental and Christian Archaeology Institutes, the Lombard and Russian Colleges, the two Palaces of St. Apollinaris and the House of Exercises for the Clergy of SS. John and Paul enjoy only the rights of exemption. In this way it has been possible to give certain of the central organs of the Vatican, which could hardly have found a place within the proper territory of the State, a seat that guaranteed them, in substance, the same conditions they would have enjoyed there. Apart from the Villa of Castel Gandolfo (27 km. from Rome), the extraterritorial zone farthest from the Vatican (St. Paul's) is 5 km. away.

Railway communications are ensured by a connecting line of a few hundred meters, between the station of St. Peter's on the Rome-Viterbo trunk line and the special Vatican station built in the Cortile del Belvedere (elevation 42) with monumental character (station of honor). The State of Vatican City has its own postal, telegraph and telephone offices, as well as a radio transmitting and receiving station of great power and modernity, and a power plant located within the State itself.

According to the census of 31 December 1936 the population of the State of Vatican City was 956 persons (instead of the 1025 of 1932), 746 citizens and 210 residents. Those born in Italy formed the great majority (596 citizens and 197 residents); as to status, laypersons prevailed (615), while priests numbered 94 and religious 37. The official language of the State is Italian.

II. LAW.

I. NOTIONS

In its historical and political antecedents, the creation of the V.C.S. is linked to the Roman Question

(v.) that arose between the Holy See and Italy from the very dawn of the Risorgimento, following the gradual conquest of the States of the Church and finally of Rome itself by the Italian Government; and in consequence of the constant, irreducible claims of this civilis principatus on the part of the Holy See, as a necessary and irreplaceable requirement for the perfect exercise of its spiritual and religious activity as the supreme institution of the Catholic Church.

The foundation of this requirement of the Holy See is predominantly theological and is linked to that fundamental principle of divine law according to which the Pontiff must be removed from the interference of any outside authority and enjoy an absolute, visible and manifest independence in the discharge of his universal religious functions as head of the Church. Although, indeed, in the order of religious relations the Holy See (v.) already enjoys such full independence by the very fact of being at the head of a societas iuridice perfecta, that is, of a primary juridical order such as the Catholic Church is, nevertheless a subordination of it in the order of temporal and political relations would in practice inevitably have repercussions also in the order of spiritual relations and would diminish or hinder the perfect enjoyment and the free exercise of its own religious sovereignty. Hence the necessity that, in the temporal order as well, it be removed from the interference of any outside power and placed in a position of absolute and visible independence and autonomy.

Now, in order actually to attain this result, there exists, according to canonistic doctrine, only one means: the creation of a civilis principatus S. Sedis, that is, of a true and proper State, placed under the sovereignty of the Pontiff, constituted for his service and functioning as his praesidium temporale, in such a way that he, adding to his spiritual sovereignty as head of the Church also a full political sovereignty as head of a State, may carry on his universal religious activity with that true, stabilis et visibilis independentia quae ei iure divino competit. It is precisely this canonistic requirement that, realized in the past by the Papal State, today finds its concrete fulfillment in the V.C.S.: created precisely and solely (as the preamble, paragraph 2, of the Lateran Treaty formally declares) to assure the Holy See absolute and visible independence and to guarantee it an indisputable sovereignty even in the international field.

II. NATURE

Without dwelling on the preliminary question, one of pure legal dogmatics, concerning the manner in which the process of legal formation of this new State was carried out; and coming directly to the examination of its nature and internal constitutional structure, the first problem that takes shape in this regard from the legal-political standpoint is whether such a new organism can objectively be recognized as having the qualification, the characteristics and the functioning of a true and proper State.

Whatever its highly singular anomalies and characteristics may be, however, evaluated in the light of the general theory of the State, from the positive standpoint of Vatican internal constitutional law the solution can only be the affirmative one.

From the very first moment of its existence, in fact, the S.C.V. not only formally proclaimed itself a true and proper State, but this typical qualification of its has procured in every way of translating into action and rendering as well-founded and as conspicuous as possible, seeking to assume even substantially in its internal constitutional order that precise juridical physiognomy, those characteristic notes and that conduct which are proper to States; which is decisive for concluding that, at least under the profile of and with respect to Vatican internal law, the S.C.V. cannot but be considered and recognized constitutionally as such, since it is in substance a juridical sphere in which only its own sovereign and unquestionable self-determination subsists and in which therefore it, and it alone, rises to the rank of decisive element for the definition of its nature and objective juridical position.

III. STRUCTURE

Once this preliminary question has been resolved, we can proceed directly to the analysis of its internal constitutional structure, as it presents itself in its individual constituent elements: territory, people, sovereignty and end, highlighting, albeit synthetically, the many peculiarities found in each.

1. The territory

The Vatican City State presents itself as the smallest State in the world. Its extent, fixed in a special plan constituting Annex I of the Lateran Treaty, measures barely 44 hectares and consists essentially of the Vatican Palaces with all the buildings, gardens and lands annexed to them and dependent, in the Basilica and in St. Peter's Square and in some adjacent streets, such as Via della Fondamenta, Via della Zecca, Piazza S. Marta, etc. In practice it is a question of the same territory already attributed to the Holy See by the Law of Guarantees (v.) with the addition of St. Peter's Square and a few lateral access streets and with the fundamental difference that, whereas according to art. 5 of that law it was granted to it in simple enjoyment and, theoretically at least, it was held always to form part of the Italian State, now, according to arts. 3 and 4 of the Treaty, it is recognized to it in full ownership and absolute sovereign power and jurisdiction, and belongs by right and in fact exclusively to the Vatican City State, without any interference of the Italian Government being able any longer to apply to it.

On the other hand, the properties listed in arts. 13, 14 paragraphs 1, 2 and 15 and in Annex II of the Treaty do not form part of the territory of the Vatican City State, as some writers have erroneously claimed; these, in accordance with of the aforementioned art. 15, enjoy the immunities recognized for the seats of diplomatic agents of foreign States. In art. 15 itself, in fact, it is stated unequivocally that they form part of the territory of the Italian State, and the same property and the immunities they enjoy are recognized in their favor for the Holy See not as sovereign of the Vatican City State, but as the supreme institution of the Church.

Special rights and duties of the two contracting parties in their mutual relations are then established in the Treaty as regards the territory. Thus on the part of the Holy See there is the obligation: a) that St. Peter's Square, although forming part of the Vatican City State, continue to be open to the public and subject to the police powers of the Italian authority, save however the right of the Holy See, in view of particular functions, to withdraw it temporarily from the free transit of the public and from the powers of the Italian authority (art. 3, paragraphs 2, 3); b) that the basilica of St. Peter continue to be open, at least normally, to public worship, it remaining however forbidden to the Italian authorities to mount the steps and to enter it, save by invitation of the competent authorities (ibid.); c) that the treasures of art and of science existing in the Vatican City State remain visible to scholars and visitors, it being reserved however to the Holy

See the full freedom to regulate the access of the public (art. 18).

On the part of the Italian State there is the obligation: a) under art. 7, paragraph 1, not to permit new constructions around the Vatican City State that constitute an overlooking and to provide for the same purpose for the partial demolition of those already existing (art. 7 paragraph 1); b) not to carry out or permit, without agreement with the Holy See, any building or road change that might affect the Vatican City State in Piazza Rusticucci and in the zones adjacent to the colonnade (art. 7 paragraph 3).

The anomalies and singular peculiarities that, in the light of the general theory of the State, the territory of the Vatican City State presents are many and truly significant. First of all, its extreme smallness, which ends up reducing the State itself almost to the royal palace of the sovereign, situated not only in a city, but indeed within the very capital of another State. Secondly, its purely private-law nature, which makes it appear rather as a private patrimony than as the true territory of a State, since the Holy See is recognized over it not only the absolute power of public law, but also full ownership of private law (Treaty, preamble paragraph 2, arts. 3 and 5). Thirdly, its absolute immutability, which renders it incapable of any variation by increase or decrease and brings it about that for the State the principle of the absolute indisposability of the territory holds; an indisposability that does not even derive from the internal constitution of the State and does not represent a simple self-limitation of it, but descends from the very international act of its formation and cannot be revoked or modified by its will. Finally, and above all, the grave anomaly that, since the Vatican City State was constituted first and foremost to ensure the temporal independence of the Holy See, the territory comes to have in relation to that purpose a function much more important than the population, counting much more than this as a presupposition of that independence, and thus ends up rising to the primary element of the State in relation to the population, which serves as a simple secondary element, in perfect antithesis to what occurs in all States.

2. The people

The matter is regulated by arts. 9 and 21 of the Lateran Treaty and by Vatican Law III on citizenship and residence. Under these provisions, the following are considered Vatican citizens: a) those who reside stably in the Vatican City State for reasons of office, dignity, charge or employment, when such residence is prescribed ex lege or authorized by the Cardinal Secretary of State or by the Governor as connected to the necessity of the office (Treaty art. 9; Vatican Law III, art. 1, letter b); b) those who reside stably in the Vatican City State, independently of reasons of office, by discretionary authorization of the pontiff with the grant and preservation of citizenship (Treaty art. 9; Vatican Law III, art. 1, letter c.); c) the spouses, children, ascendants, brothers and sisters of a Vatican citizen, provided they live with him and are authorized to reside in the State according to the norms established in the Vatican law itself (Vatican Law III, arts. 3, 4, 5); d) the cardinals of the Curia, that is, those residing in Rome, even if they live outside the Vatican City State (Treaty art. 21; Vatican Law III, art. 1, letter a).

Summing up, therefore, one may conclude that Vatican citizenship is acquired, as a general rule, by stable functional residence, that is, by stable residence on the territory accompanied by the exercise of an office; and, as an exception, either by stable residence alone for those who have obtained pontifical authorization or find themselves in the conditions provided by Vatican law, or by office alone for the cardinals of the Curia.

The cessation of any of these conditions entails in individual cases the loss of citizenship, which can therefore be either voluntary (spontaneous abandonment of residence or renunciation of office), or imposed ope legis, or sanctioned by the authority (cessation of the conditions for which residence is permitted; revocation of office or of authorization to reside, etc.: Vatican Law III, arts. 6, letters b - d); 8). According to art. 9 of the Treaty, however, residence, and therefore also citizenship, is not lost by the mere fact of a temporary stay elsewhere not accompanied by the loss of the dwelling in the city itself (for cardinals also in Rome), or by other circumstances proving the abandonment of said residence.

Once Vatican citizenship is lost, those who before acquiring it were Italian citizens, or who are descendants of Italian citizens, or who, although originally foreign citizens, have no title to reacquire or enjoy the citizenship of any other State, return to or become Italian citizens (Treaty art. 9, paragraph 2).

As regards, finally, the juridical condition of Vatican citizens in Italy, the Treaty, in the already cited art. 9, provides that in all those cases in which Vatican law does not lay down special rules, they, in Italian territory, will fall under the application of Italian law, if they were originally Italian citizens, and of the law of the respective foreign State, if they were originally citizens of other States.

It is understood, under these conditions, how even the element of the people presents in the S.C.V. [State of Vatican City] an absolutely anomalous nature and most exceptional characteristics. Such is, first of all, the fact of finding the matter regulated in the Lateran Treaty rather than in the internal Vatican laws alone, with the consequence of binding and limiting the freedom of the S.C.V. to determine sovereignly what its own population is and what the conditions are for entering into it or being excluded from it, as is the proper right of all States. Such is, further, the fundamental criterion adopted as the premise for the acquisition, preservation and loss of citizenship, which, being founded on stable functional residence, rather than on ius sanguinis or ius soli, resolves itself in practice into the lack of any bond of blood and race among its members and into the absence of that national element which constitutes the social substratum of the people of every State.

While, moreover, citizenship is by definition an original and definitive status that adheres to the individual from his birth and accompanies him until his death automatically, Vatican citizenship presents itself with an essentially acquired, precarious, unstable character, as one that is acquired precisely by an act of will and at a later time, that is preserved temporarily and that can be lost at any moment, so as to lead one to conclude not wrongly that it is in effect only a superimposed nationality which is added and removed like a garment (Iarrige, op. cit. in bibl., p. 22).

Truly singular appears, finally, the very position of these citizens in the State, as those who have a reason to exist only insofar as they are necessary for the administration of the territory and for the service of the State, and who subsist only insofar as they are functionaries (employees) of the State itself or of the Holy See. Whence it is not the State that exists to subjectivize the interests of its own collectivity, but rather this latter that is instituted to provide for the well-being of the State, indeed not even of the State but of another entity distinct from it, the supreme institution of the Church, of which the S.C.V. is in the last analysis a simple instrument for the attainment of its ends. From which it follows precisely, as has already been noted, that, unlike other States, in the S.C.V. citizens present themselves in relation to the territory as the merely accessory and secondary object of the sovereignty of the Holy See.

3. Sovereignty

Sovereign of the State, on the basis of the Treaty and in accordance with the Vatican fundamental laws, is naturally, indeed necessarily, the Holy See, that is, the Roman Pontiff, insofar as and because he is the supreme institution of the Catholic Church; and civil and political sovereignty in the S.C.V. is assumed by him as soon as he is elevated to the pontificate, precisely because - as the canonists explain - principatus civilis sequitur ut accessorium principatum religiosum. For this same reason, during the period of vacancy of the Holy See, the College of Cardinals, as it assumes the Government of the Church, is likewise invested with the supreme power in the S.C.V. But, just as in regard to the Church its powers of government are limited and, as to legislative activity, circumscribed to cases of urgency alone (const. Vacante Sede Apost. of Pius X, n. 5), so too with regard to the government of the S.C.V.

it may issue legislative provisions only in case of urgency and to have effect not beyond the duration of the vacancy, unless they are confirmed by the Supreme Pontiff subsequently elected in accordance with the Sacred Constitutions (Law I fondam., art. 1, paragraph 1).

The authority of the Pontiff, on the other hand, as far as concerns the government of the S.C.V., is truly autocratic and unlimited; he has the fullness of legislative, executive and judicial powers within the internal order of the State (Law I fondam., art. 1), and the representation of it before foreign States for all relations of international law (Law cit., art. 3). In practice he exercises these absolute powers of government, partly directly, partly through special delegated organs. These are: a) The Pontifical Commission. — It was instituted by the Supreme Pontiff Pius XII on 20 March 1939 and is composed of certain cardinals assisted by a secretary; to it is delegated the exercise of all the powers belonging to the Supreme Pontiff in regard to the government of the S.C.V. The figure of this Commission has been likened, in doctrine, but, it seems, with scant foundation, to that of the lieutenant general of the Realm in Italian constitutional law.

b) The Governor. — He is appointed and revoked by the Pontiff and is directly and exclusively responsible to him. To him is delegated ex lege the normal exercise of executive power (Law I fond., art. 6), save for special acts reserved to the pontiff (law cit., artt. 2-4), and there may be delegated to him ad nutum of the pontiff the legislative power for determined matters or for individual objects (art. 5, paragraph 2). Independently, moreover, of express delegation he may issue regulations and ordinances for the execution of the laws, after obtaining the opinion of the General Counsellor of the State and without being able to derogate from or dispense with the same (art. 4, paragraphs 3-4). By law of 1 December 1932 n. XXXII a definitive arrangement was given to the Governorate, providing that the Governor, in the exercise of his functions and in the study and handling of the most important affairs, be assisted by a Central Council constituted by the three directors of the central offices (Secretariat, Monuments, Museums and Galleries, Technical Services), in which all the services of the Governorate are grouped, and by a president endowed with special technical-administrative competence.

c) The General Counsellor. — He too is appointed and revoked directly by the Pontiff and is directly and exclusively responsible to him; he has no obligation to assume Vatican citizenship and residence, nor does he belong to the category of functionaries of the State, but receives only an indemnity of office (law IV on the administrative order, art. 8). He is a consultative organ of the State, with functions analogous to those of the Italian Council of State in its consultative capacity, and is bound to give his opinion every time this is established by law or requested by the pontiff or the governor (law I fondam., art. 8). Moreover, complaints for injuries to a right or interest addressed to the pontiff and requests for pardon must be submitted through his intermediary.

d) The jurisdictional organs. — The appointment and revocation of judicial personnel belongs to the pontiff. Nor does such personnel have the obligation to assume Vatican citizenship and residence, nor does it belong to the category of functionaries of the State, and it receives only an indemnity of office. Judicial functions are entrusted, for cases of lesser importance in civil matters and for contraventions in criminal matters, to a single judge, who in civil matters is the president of the tribunal of first instance or one of the judges of the tribunal itself designated by him, and in criminal matters an administrative functionary designated by the governor.

For other cases, the court of first instance sits as a panel and is composed of a president, two permanent judges and one substitute judge; jurisdiction at the higher levels is ensured by a Court of Appeal and a Court of Cassation. Moreover, the extraordinary remedy of recourse to the Supreme Tribunal of the Apostolic Signatura is permitted. Naturally, all that matter which ratione subiecti vel obiecti is reserved, under the terms of the CIC, to ecclesiastical jurisdiction remains withdrawn from the lay tribunals.

e) The administrative bodies. — They all depend on the Governor of the State; they are not all necessarily Vatican citizens; but all must swear an oath of fidelity in his hands according to a specific formula. The distribution of offices, the number, the attributions and the rights and obligations of the officials, employees and wage-earners, their appointment, discipline and removal are determined by a regulation of the Governor (Law IV on administrative organization, art. 9).

As for the functions of government of the S. C. V., its constitutional juridical organization was regulated by the issuance of 6 fundamental laws published on 7 June 1929 and distinguished by progressive order number, namely: Fundamental Law I of Vatican City; Law II on the sources of law; Law III on citizenship and residence; Law IV on administrative organization; Law V on economic, commercial and professional organization; Law VI on public security.

Law II, which governs precisely the matter relating to the sources of the objective law of the S. C. V., distinguishes between principal sources and supplementary sources. The former are: a) the CIC and the Apostolic Constitutions; b) the laws issued for Vatican City by the Pontiff or by the lower authorities delegated by him, as well as the regulations issued by the competent authorities (art. 1). The latter are: a) the Italian civil, commercial, procedural (a specific judicial organization was promulgated with the "motu proprio" Con la legge of 1 May 1946) and criminal laws in force on the date of 7 June 1929; b) the general regulations and the local regulations of the province and governatorate [or Commune] of Rome indicated by the law itself and with the modifications and limitations specified therein, always saving the precepts of divine law and the general principles of canon law; c) the norms of the Treaty and Concordat; all the aforesaid norms, in relation to the de facto situation existing in the S.C.V., must prove applicable there (art. 3). Special norms are finally established to fill any gaps still remaining in both civil and criminal matters (cf. arts. 22 and 23).

Having made these brief remarks on the governmental organization of the S. C. V., one may pass to the examination of its most characteristic features. In the S. C. V. the element of sovereignty presents itself configured as an elective monarchy of an autocratic, patrimonial and extratemporal character.

The first of these characteristics needs no particular comment. As has already been seen, the Holy See holds the sovereignty of a true and proper absolute monarch in the most precise and complete sense of the word. Any idea of distinction and all the more of opposition between the Holy See, sovereign, and the Vatican subjects, would be truly puerile, just as any thought of division of powers or separation of functions, the corner-stone of the constitutional orders of modern States, is not even conceivable. In particular, by the solemn provision of art. 1 of Fundamental Law I, the Holy See is, as has been seen, the source of all sovereign powers without distinction, and, even when in their actual exercise the existence of other organs is found (governor, tribunals, etc.), they present themselves as its simple delegates and their very delegation is reduced to a mere possibility left to its exclusive discretion and revocable at any time. Conversely, the subjects of the pontifical sovereignty are not only recognized as having no political right and no participation in the exercise of the power of government, but, in practice, lack the occasion to exercise many of the fundamental public rights, such as religious freedom, individual freedom, freedom of association, of the press, of teaching, etc.

The same six fundamental laws, finally, in which the juridical organization of the State is enshrined, do not even constitute a true self-limitation of sovereignty on the part of the Holy See, since this, just as in the order of the Church it is above the ius canonicum, so in that of the S.C.V. remains above the laws issued by itself and absolutely free to repeal, modify and derogate from them at any moment and at its pleasure.

An even more singular characteristic of the S. C. V. is that of presenting itself, under the aspect of sovereignty, as a revival of that figure of the patrimonial State which was common in the feudal era; as a State, that is, in which the juridical personality, and therefore the power of will and of government, does not belong to the state order understood in its unitary whole, but to a subject existing within it, the supreme ruler, who is its effective holder by virtue of a superior interest; he affirms and exercises it in his own name and for his personal advantage as a right of his own, intangible and perpetual, and with a conception and a content of a rather privatistic than publicistic nature (roughly, just as a private individual might exercise his ins dominii over a piece of land of his own property); and he exercises it finally principally as dominion over the territory and merely secondarily as imperium over the citizens.

In the S. C. V., in fact, the Holy See exercises its autocratic power of imperium not for the interest and advantage of the State itself, but in the name precisely of a different and superior interest, that of the Church; it exercises it with an absolute supremacy over all the different constitutive elements of the State; over the territory, object of its private property; over the people, constituted by its simple officials; over the organization, created by itself and dependent on it alone; over the laws, finally, whose issuance, preservation and revocation depend exclusively on its discretion. It exercises it further as a right of its own, necessary, intangible and perpetual, inasmuch as, the S. C. V. having arisen as a means and safeguard of the spiritual sovereignty of the pontiff and having been at the same time recognized by Italy in art. 26 of the Treaty precisely under his sovereignty, the belonging to the pontiff of the most absolute sovereign power in the State ends up proving to be a truly necessary, intangible and immutable element of the State itself and to rise to the rank of fundamental presupposition of its possibility of existence and juridical subsistence, both in the internal order and in the international one, at least in relation to Italy. It exercises it finally, as has been repeatedly noted, principally as dominion over the territory and merely subordinately as imperium over the citizens: all of it just as occurs in the so-called patrimonial State.

A final characteristic, lastly, that the element of sovereignty presents in the S. C. V., is its essentially extratemporal content, that is, the fact that the temporal power of the Holy See, although in itself so autocratic and unlimited, seems to have become alienated even from the protection and pursuit of the temporal interests of its own collectivity and ends up appearing reduced in this respect to a simple nudum ius. The higher purpose, in fact, essentially religious and spiritual, which the Holy See has set out to achieve through its principatus civilis, has meant that it has regarded as a negligible element, if not as a veritable obstacle, concerning itself with all those public services that are connected with the exercise of political sovereignty, and therefore, rather than burdening itself with such onerous and from its point of view useless charges, it has preferred to renounce their organization and provision, entrusting them, as will be set forth below, outright to Italy.

4. The purpose

Since the S. C. V. was created precisely and solely to constitute for the Holy See, the supreme institution of the Church, a sovereignty also in the temporal field, its ultimate necessary purpose is embodied, as the preamble of the Treaty warns, in the precise aim of assuring the Holy See absolute and visible independence and guaranteeing it an indisputable sovereignty even in the international field. Hence the consequence that the purpose of the S. C. V. presents itself with the three unique and most singular characteristics of being and necessarily having to be an apolitical purpose, a purpose transcending the interests of its own population, a teleological purpose.

The S. C. V. has first of all an apolitical purpose. While the State is by definition a political entity, that is, an entity with general and therefore potentially unlimited purposes, variable by its exclusive self-determination, the S. C. V. is an entity having a fixed, determined, immutable purpose, incapable of any variation. It has moreover an end absolutely foreign to and transcending the interests of its own population. While every State is by definition directed toward making the well-being of its collectivity subjective, the State of Vatican City appears instead to pursue solely spiritual and religious ends of a transcendental and universal nature, wholly beyond the material interests of its people. It presents, moreover, a typically teleological end, in the sense that it does not find, as every other State does, its justification in itself, in the mere fact of its juridical existence, but rather in relation to the existence of another entity, the Catholic Church, or better the Holy See, and in function of its spiritual sovereignty, which it has the task of rendering practically real, effective, visible and manifest; whence it is that it ends up presenting a truly instrumental character, in which resides its ratio vitae, that is, it turns out precisely as a teleological State, a means to the ends of the central and supreme entity of the Catholic Church.

All this has, in the final analysis, the result of causing the State of Vatican City to assume, in its internal structure and in its international physiognomy, the typical figure of a theocratic hierocratic State; of a State, that is, in which the religious element proves to be inherent and connatural in its organic structure, in such a way as to inform and permeate its entire life and political and juridical activity, indeed to be elevated to the true informing concept and ultimate end of its entire organization and functioning; so as to make it appear as an organism subject to an extraneous and superior will, the divine will, in which resides its first reason for being and its very capacity to live and to act, and of which its governing organs appear as the representatives and bearers and its laws figure as the concrete manifestations and commands.

IV. EXTERNAL INTERNATIONAL ASPECT

Having outlined the internal constitutional physiognomy of the S. C. V. and brought out its peculiarities from that point of view, it is necessary to examine its juridical position and its particular characteristics under the external international aspect.

The first question to be examined and resolved is whether, in this order of relations as well, it actually has that juridical nature of statehood which it possesses (as has been seen) under the profile of the internal constitutional order, and whether it can and must therefore really be considered as a member of the international community of States. Naturally, such a qualification and position are not without being asserted and claimed by the S. C. V. (cf. Law I fondam., or - Interior of the church of S. Anna dei palafrenieri, made by Pius XI the parish church of the City of the V. (cf. const. quensi pacto, 30 May 1929; AAS, 21 [1929], p. 310). Begun on a design by Vignola (5th half of the 16th century), it was completed in the 18th century and restored under the pontificates of Gregory XVI, Pius X and Pius XI.

art. 3; Law IV on administrative organization, art. 5, lett. c, d), but what is truly decisive in this regard is not so much this subjective will and self-determination of its own to exist and function as a State in the international community, as above all the acceptance of it by the other autonomous subjects, toward which it has intended and intends to assert and implement it, that is, the juridical recognition of this qualification and these state rights of its on the part both of Italy and of the international community.

As regards the Italian State, in fact, it not only formally declared in art. 26, paragraph 2 of the Lateran Treaty itself that it recognizes the State of the Vatican City under the sovereignty of the Supreme Pontiff, but, in conformity with this first act of formal recognition, in its own substantial conduct, from the Lateran Pacts to the present day, it has always and unequivocally demonstrated that it considers it as a true State, endowed with full international subjectivity. And it suffices to recall in this regard the various conventions subsequently concluded by it with that entity, such as the postal convention of 9 July 1929, the telegraphic one of 18 Nov. 1929, the automobile one of 28 Nov. 1929, the monetary one of 2 Aug. 1930, etc.; which, while they concern the most varied and characteristic branches of state activity, all alike present, in form and substance, the manifest nature and characters of agreements of international law, identical in every respect to those concluded by Italy with the other States for such matters of common interest, and consequently implying the necessary presupposition of the international subjectivity of the two contracting parties and therefore of the S. C. V.

Similarly, then, as regards the other States, or at least those diplomatically accredited to the Holy See at the time of the stipulation of the Lateran Pacts, if an express recognition of the S. C. V. on their part is to be excluded, an incontestable tacit recognition must in any case be admitted to have occurred - no less significant and effective for international law - manifested not only through those solemn official felicitations and congratulations which the Diplomatic Corps accredited to the Holy See addressed to the Pontiff in the name of their own governments as soon as they received communication of the solution of the Roman Question and of the creation of the S. C. V.; but also and above all in the very fact that they all equally continued to maintain unchanged their own attitude and their diplomatic and juridical relations with the Holy See, even after its solemn proclamation as sovereign of the S. C. V., without thinking of making the slightest reservation or exception in that regard. All this, moreover, apart from the fact that it would have been illogical and absurd for such recognition to have been lacking on their part, since, in substance, it was precisely those States, far more than Italy, that had an effective interest and political advantage in recognizing the S. C. V. as an authentic State member of the international community, inasmuch as it was precisely with the creation of this organism that full independence and autonomy from the Italian State had been secured for the Holy See, which they above all were particularly anxious to see affirmed dogmatically and implemented practically in an incontestable manner before the whole Catholic world.

In its international physiognomy too, however, the S. C. V. presents itself with a nature and characteristics entirely its own and special.

First of all, as has already been observed, the S. C. V., at least in relation to Italy, while it appears as it is in its external apparatus with the characteristics of a state organism, is in fact still always a State willed and recognized by the two contracting parties for the special purposes and with the modalities set out in the ... Treaty, that is, with determined attributes and purposes, which not only directly touch its constitutional essence and structure, but which also exert their juridical value and significance with regard to its very personality and its international mode of being. Constituting in fact so many presuppositions of its recognition by Italy, they have ended up by rising to essential qualifications of its very international personality in relation at least to the Italian State, any variation of which would forthwith entail the extinction of the State as a subject of rights in the international order, indeed, according to the authoritative opinion of some publicists, would cause the Italian State to reacquire ipso iure sovereignty over the particle of territory and population to which it has renounced. This has the effect of making the S. C. V. the truly unique and most singular example of a State necessarily having a pre-established, fixed and immutable physiognomy, functioning and purpose, and for which, therefore, having a determined internal constitutional configuration and activity is a juridically relevant condition, indeed a true essential presupposition of its possibility of existence and subsistence in the very order of international relations.

Another characteristic, then, not equally singular, but not for that reason any less worthy of note, is its juridical figure of a neutralized State. It finds its basis in the provision of art. 24, last paragraph of the Treaty: the Vatican City shall always be considered neutral and inviolable territory; and it has the effect that the S. C. V. thus remains bound erga omnes by a preventive, perpetual and absolute commitment of neutrality, by virtue of which it is obliged to have no international relations other than those of peace, and therefore not only not to participate in wars between States, but also to abstain from acts that could lead to such participation (offensive and defensive alliances; political unions with other non-neutralized States, etc.), naturally excepting its integral right of defense against possible aggressions.

As has moreover already been mentioned, the S. C. V., having its own territory completely surrounded by that of another State, Italy, assumes in relation to it the character of an enclave, with the consequent obligation ipso iure on the part of Italy to ensure both to it and to third States, independently of any stipulated conventional commitment, the reciprocal full and absolute freedom of communications. Except that, with particular regard to the relations between the S. C. V. and Italy, this obligation comes to lose much of its its practical interest, inasmuch as in the Treaty itself a whole series of conventional obligations assumed by the Italian State toward the Vatican State is already formally delimited and pre-established, obligations aimed precisely at permitting and ensuring it free connection and autonomous freedom of communication with the other States, both as regards telegraphic, radiotelegraphic, telephone, radiotelephone and postal services and the circulation of its vehicles (art. 6), and also as regards its agents and its diplomatic relations (arts. 12 and 19). In practice, therefore, this character of an enclave would have an effective juridical relevance only in the fact that third States, although they have remained extraneous to these conventional relations agreed between the two contracting Parties, would nonetheless have the right to demand of Italy the observance of them toward themselves, at least within the limits flowing from this particular situation that the Vatican City State presents.

The last characteristic, finally, proper to it under the international aspect, is that deriving from the very singular relationship that necessarily binds it to the Catholic Church. Although in reality this is a question that reflects the Holy See rather than the Vatican City State and is directly linked to the problem of its present juridical position in the international order, it is of interest here to observe with regard to the particular aspects of the Vatican City State that it comes to present itself in the international order as a state organism, if not actually fused, certainly intimately connected and bound to another organism, the Catholic Church, which is likewise a subject of international law or at least a primary juridical order, but which on the other hand has an essence and characters entirely different and antithetical, that is, with a nature by definition extra-state and with an activity and purpose exclusively spiritual, religious and universal, rather than temporal, political and territorial. It presents itself, in fact, as joined to the Church both by a very strict bond of stable, perpetual and indissoluble union, which is manifested in the necessary communion of the sovereign subject, the Holy See; and at the same time by a condition of intimate and immutable dependence, which is manifested in the direct subordination of its interests and its state purposes to the extra-state interests and purposes of the latter, and which is such as to make of it first and foremost a simple instrument in its service. This is, perhaps, at least under the international aspect, the greatest and most serious anomaly that the Vatican City State offers; an anomaly which, added to all those other exceptional characteristics that it presents in its process of formation, in its structure and internal constitutional functioning and in its physiognomy and international activity, serves truly to make of it a unicum in the political and juridical life of peoples.

III. ARCHAEOLOGICAL ZONE AND BASILICA.

I. THE VATICAN ZONE

The boundaries of the Vatican zone are clearly delineated by the enclosing walls erected by Pope Leo IV (848-52), whence it was called the Leonine City (v. below).

The name "Vaticanum," like the neighboring one of Ianiculum, seems to designate Etruscan localities dependent on Veii. According to the hypothesis of B. G. Niebuhr (Römische Geschichte, I, 2nd ed., Berlin 1827, p. 299), in this zone there would have been a pagus (village) of name Vaticum, like Labicum or Vatica, from which the adjective Vaticanus would have come.

Pliny the Elder also recalls in these places a secular holm oak to which a magical power was attributed and which had affixed to its trunk a bronze tablet on which Etruscan letters were engraved (Nat. Hist., XVI, 237). "Mona Vaticanus" is used by Horace (Od., I, 20, 7) and by Damasus with reference to the hill situated immediately to the west of the Basilica (A. Ferrua, Epigrammata Damasiana, Vatican City 1942, p. 92). Cicero designates with the plural montes (De lege agraria, II, 35, 96) the heights among which open to the southwest the small valleys of the Gelsomino and of the Fornaci and the valley called dell'Inferno to the north. These localities were exploited by the ancients for workshops of wine vessels (cadi), of kitchen utensils (patellae) and, from the imperial period onward, for bricks (lateres).

The configuration of the terrain was also the most varied and rugged; in fact, from the north the highest hill, today called Monte Mario, sloped down toward the south, forming the separating valley called Valle dell'Inferno, dropping to between 26 and 28 meters above sea level, then rising again with the present Vatican Gardens between the 72-meter mark up to a maximum of 80.60 m. at the westernmost point. As can still be seen, the terrain sloped from the Gardens toward the east, that is, toward the present Basilica (elevation 30.07 m.), until it reached its minimum elevation at the place where the obelisk in St. Peter's Square stands today, elevation 10.1 m., where the virgin soil lies about 9 m. below the present level. Returning to the north, again from the Valle dell'Inferno, further east, the terrain rises again up to the height of the Courtyard of St. Damasus (elevation 38.80 m.) and the modern pontifical palace, to slope down toward the Sistine Chapel and the present Vatican Basilica (elevation 30.07 m.). Having passed beyond this — and then beyond the valley of the Gelsomino and of the Fornaci — it rises again toward the south in the direction of the two Colleges of the Augustinians of St. Monica and of Propaganda Fide, Via delle Fornaci and St. Onophrius on the Janiculum and the General Curia of the Society of Jesus, to descend again toward the Tiber. Perhaps the point of maximum depression was reached in the southern corner of the present facade of the Basilica because, around the beginning of the 17th century, for its foundations, the architect Carlo Maderno was forced to lower itself to 135 palms from the level of the stairway of the new Basilica, that is to a depth of 33 m., and at the same time from the indications of the archivist of the Chapter of St. Peter, G. Grimaldi, it is gathered that the paving of a Roman road passed near the Campo Santo Teutonico and the Palazzo del S. Uffizio at a depth of 50 palms (11.15 m.), while the valley floor reached 90 palms, that is 20.07 m. The ground occupied by the Ager Vaticanus between Monte Mario, the Tiber and the Milvian Bridge has also changed in elevation, because in the modern Prati district, ruins have been found 4 m. below the level

Before the present transformations for Piazza Pius XII, the corner of the house in front of the pediment of the north colonnade marked the point of greatest depression, being at an elevation of 18.2 m., while the base of the obelisk is at 19.1 m.; the right arm of the external level of the basilica is at 23 m.; the point where the Porta Cavalleggeri was, at 24 m.; the level of the Belvedere courtyard at 27 m.; Piazza della Sagrestia lies to the east at 25 m.; to the west at 28 m.; the threshold of the main door of the Basilica at 30.27 m.

G. De Angelis D'Ossat pointed out that the present Basilica, the church of S. Stefano, the Governor's palace, the Ethiopian Seminary, the railway station, as well as the Vatican walls, where the new entrance to the Vatican Museums is, rest upon rather deep marine marls known as piacentine. "Above the Vatican marls extend permeable rocks and therefore the rainwater, after passing through these, had to seep stealthily into the alluvium and the discharge, rendering it marshy, as happens at present" (G. De Angelis D'Ossat, La geologia e le Cat. rom., II, Vatican City 1938, Append.; id., Carta geologica della città del Vaticano, from the Memorie Pont. accad. Scienze Novi Lincei, 2nd series, 17 (1933), pp. 43-74; 3rd series, 1 (1934), pp. 1-36; 2 (1935), pp. 1-50.

At the meeting point between the Palazzo del S. Uffizio and the southern corner of the basilica is the greatest depth of the valley, of that "Vallis vaticana" mentioned by Tacitus for the Circus of Gaius, later also called that of Nero (Ann., XIV, 14). To the south-east of the montes extended the marshy ager "infambius Vaticanis locis" infested by malaria which during the summer of 69 decimated the soldiers of Vitellius (Tacitus, Hist., II, 93). Agrippina the Elder had to reclaim the land and perhaps modify its configuration when she made there the gardens which by means of a portico reached the Tiber. Her son Caligula received in these gardens in 39 A.D. legates from Israel. From that time the communications between the Vatican area and the Circus Flaminius must have been assured by means of the bridge over the Tiber in front of the present hospital of S. Spirito, called Neronian in documents of the 12th century and localized "ad Sassiam", but out of use because "ruptus" (R. Valentini and G. Zucchetti, Codice topografico, III, Rome 1947, pp. 26, 84); its ruins are visible when the Tiber is low. Only in 134 A.D. was there, further upstream, the Aelian or Hadrianic bridge. It has been believed possible to recognize in certain ruins the remains of the palatium of Caligula's villa. From the 11th century one finds "Palatium", a designation for that part of the Janiculum spur which descends toward St. Peter with the church of S. Maria in Palazzolo, indicated by G. Grimaldi as "in monte S. Michaelis" and destroyed when the vineyard of the Cesi or of the Vercelli was made (C. Huelsen, Le chiese di Roma, Florence 1927, pp. 352-53). Caligula built the circus, and Suetonius recalls that the Emperor "circenses frequenter... in vaticano commisti" (Cland., 21). He had brought from Heliopolis the obelisk to adorn the circus (Pliny, Nat. Hist., XVI, 201; XXVI, 74; for the inscription: CIL, VI, 31191). As for the location of the circus, "clausus valle vaticana" (Tacitus, Ann., XIV, 14) it must be sought in the depression between the general curia of the Augustinians and the southern portico of Bernini. The regional catalogues of the Constantinian age no longer name the circus; because to build the Vatican basilica the architects chose a level about 6 m. higher than the level on which the southern row of Roman tombs stood, which were "near the circus". This therefore was no longer visible from the moment that the ground below had to be filled in. In the Vatican gardens was sacrificed by Nero the multitudo ingenu of the Roman protomartyrs attested by Tacitus (Ann., XV, 44). Besides the gardens of Agrippina, of Nero, of the Domitii, other gardens are also mentioned. Pliny the Younger recalls (Ep., IV, 2, 5) that in the Vatican were also found the gardens of Aquilius Regulus, who with his denunciations led many Roman citizens to death in the time of Nero and then in that of Domitian. Martial boasts of his small garden in the V. from which he enjoyed an excellent panoramic view of the city (Epigr., IV, 64). In the 4th century A.D. the senator Aurelius Symmachus sought a little tranquillity, withdrawing from the noises of the city, in his villa in the Vatican (Ep., VI, 58, 1; VII, 21). The land, however, in Cicero's judgment must have been anything but fertile (De lege agraria, II, 96). Martial does nothing but repeat how bad was the wine that the vineyards of the Vatican produced: "If you drink the wine of the Vatican, you drink poison; if you like vinegar, drink the wine of the Vatican, the wine of the Vatican is treacherous!". Instead Aulus Gellius recalls with pleasure the small garden and orchard possessed in the Vatican by his friend, the poet Julius Paulus, who often invited him to taste salad and fruit!

In 59 A.D. Nero did away with, by means of compliant physicians, his rich paternal aunt Domitia Lepida and took possession of her gardens situated on the right bank of the Tiber, at least as far as the present Palazzo di Giustizia, where a lead water conduit was found with the name of Passienus Crispus, husband of Domitia Lepida. According to Lanciani the horti and gardens of Nero would have been formed by the union of the gardens of Agrippina with those of Domitia Lepida. According to Huelsen, instead, the owner of the gardens called those of Domitia would have been Domitia Longina, wife of the emperor Domitian, because in the mausoleum of Hadrian a base was discovered with an inscription in her honor. Certain it is that the place on which Hadrian built his mausoleum belonged at that time to the imperial fisc.

In 1886, about 500 m. north of the northern bastion of Castel S. Angelo, a group of sumptuous rooms and a pool were found, built with extraordinary perfection, which R. Lanciani attributed to the age of Nero; but all the chambers had subsequently been filled up to a height of 1.80 m. with human skeletons; it was a matter of an epidemic of warriors, because it should be recalled that from the time of the Gothic siege (537) the mausoleum of Hadrian had been used as a fortress and therefore called castle, then Castel S. Angelo.

Moreover the "gens Domitia" may have returned as owner of its properties after the death of Nero; certain it is that the Domitii had very extensive properties in the Vatican area under the empire of the Flavians, especially with the brickworks in the valley called dell'Inferno between the second half of the 1st century A.D. and the first half of the 2nd, although many of their properties had been confiscated once again by the imperial fisc under Domitian. There are then well known, from the brick factory marks, the properties of Domitia Lucilla wife of P. Calvisius Tullus in the year 109 and those of Domitia Lucilla, wife of Annius Verus.

The roads of the Vatican region were the Cornelia, the Aurelia nuova and the Trionfale. The first, of probable censorial origin, perhaps the oldest, ensured communication with the kilns and the brickworks; the second joined the "Punta" with the Aurelia vetus, which climbed from the present-day Piazza S. Crisogono to the Janiculum and which was a great artery toward the Tyrrhenian; the Trionfale climbed to Monte Mario.

Certainly the Cornelia and the Aurelia in the time of Vespasian (69-79 A.D.) had the same curator (R. Cagnat, in Comptes rendus de l'Ac. des Inscr. et belles lettres, 1921, p. 225); in the time of Antoninus Pius (138-61) there was a single curator for the two Aurelias, the Cornelia and the Trionfale.

It is not possible to trace within the Vatican zone the course of the three roads. Remains of a Roman road came to light along the Borgo S. Spirito (A. Canezza, Pio Istituto di S. Spirito e Ospedali riuniti, Rome 1933, p. 11). A road in the valley is today indicated by the constant southward orientation of the entrance door to the burial cells found beneath the basilica; a road that must have had the circus in the valley and the necropolis on the hill, and continued to the top of the hill. In the period following the construction of the Constantinian Basilica two roads are found, one in the valley and the other on the hill, still indicated in the plans of L. Bufalini of 1551 and of Du-Pérac-Lafréry of 1577. On the hill above the Basilica a road gave access to the churches of S. Vincenzo, SS. Sergio e Bacco, to the monastery of the SS. Giovanni e Paolo and likewise reached the "posterula" called Porta Pertusa, in the walls of Leo IV. The course of the Roman road crossing the Basilica and adjacent to the tomb of St. Peter, marked by R. Lanciani in his Forma Urbis, accepted by subsequent topographers, has been shown not to exist by recent explorations. Two other secondary roads are ancient: the prolongation of the via Septimiana toward the northwest and the present-day via delle Fornaci, which from the Aurelia vetus continued toward the north, that is, toward the medieval via or ruga Francigena or via Sacrata (cf. A. Elter, Vaticanum, in Rheinisches Museum, 46 [1891], pp. 112-38; G. Lugli, Il V. nell'età classica, in Vaticano, edited by G. Fallani and M. Escobar, Florence 1946, pp. 3-22).

II. VATICAN NECROPOLIS

The custom of placing tombs along the Roman roads just outside the city explains the fact of the great number of tombs throughout the whole area of the Vatican, in proximity to the three main roads that crossed it, namely the Via Aurelia Nuova, the Via Cornelia and the Via Trionfale, besides the lesser ones that intersected it from south to north. A short distance to the west of the mausoleum of Hadrian, that is at the intersection of Borgo Nuovo with the vicolo della Traspontina, there arose a grandiose tomb in the form of a pyramid, still indicated on the map of L. Bufalini of 1551; but it had already been demolished by Alexander VI, as early as 1499, for the new road that took from the pope the name via Alessandrina, later Borgo Nuovo. The monument, in concrete, with a side of about 30 m. and equally high, was on the outside faced with great slabs of marble taken by pope Donus (676-78) to pave the atrium of St. Peter's (Lib. Pont., I, p. 348). In the Middle Ages the monument had received the strangest names: "meta or memoria Romuli"; "sepulchrum Romuli"; "pyramis Romuli", "Scipionis sepulchrum", "sepulchrum Aepulorum". It is mentioned in the bull of Leo IX of 21 March 1053 (L. Schiaparelli, in Arch. Soc. rom. di storia patria, 24 [1901], p. 472), in the various editions of the Mirabilia, in the Liber Politicus of Benedict the Canon and by Pietro Mallio (R. Valentini and G. Zucchetti, Codice topografico, III, pp. 45, 163, 212, 218, 431). A list of the reproductions of the so-called "meta Romuli" was published by B. M. Peebles (La meta Romuli e una lettera di M. Fermo, in Rendiconti della Pont. accad. rom. di arch., 3rd series, 12 [1936], pp. 21-63). The best drawings are those of cod. Vat. Urb. lat. 277 of the year 1472 and of the Escurial codex ms. 28, II, 12 of the year 1490. Another monumental tomb was of circular form; in the 15th century it still reached the height of the mausoleum of Hadrian, was faced with marble and had assumed various names: Terebintus, Tiburtinus Neronis, obeliscus Neronis; certain apocryphal documents, such as the Passio Petri et Pauli and the pseudo-Marcellus, indicated the tomb of St. Peter near a tree called Terebinth (Acta Apostolorum Apocrypha, ed. R.A. Lipsius, I, Leipzig 1891, pp. 172, 216); the name Tiburtinus derives from the "lapis Tiburtinus" with which it was faced (R. Valentini - G. Zucchetti, op. cit., III, 1945, pp. 45, 212, 218, 431). It too was demolished before 1499; in founding the casa del Pellegrino, at the beginning of via della Conciliazione, the foundations of this great circular tomb were found to the north-west of the pyramid, which in some medieval document was also called "meta Remi". Besides these great sepulchral monuments, inscriptions of "agitatores circenses" (CIL, VI, 10048, 10052-53) and of famous horses victorious in races, from the time of Domitian, of Trajan and of Antoninus Pius, were found in the said zone (B. Borsari, in Bull. arch. com., 40 [1912], p. 177 ff.). In 1936, 36 m. to the east of the obelisk, on its axis, the sepulchral cippus was discovered, placed by a Sextia Prisca for her patron L. Sextius Pothitus (Esplorazioni, cit., I, p. 18 and fig. 5). In the same place the east side of a sepulchral monument appeared and it was established that the Roman level was at a depth of 9 m. In St. Peter's Square, when the head of the southern portico of Bernini was being founded (1656-67), sarcophagi and the entrance of a monument with a bas-relief were found (P. Santi Bartoli, Memorie di varie escavazioni fatte in Roma, in C. Fea, Miscellanea filologica, critica e antiquaria, Rome 1825, p. 236, n. 56). During the works for the construction of the present building of the Annona vaticana, in the summer of 1930, a Roman necropolis came to light, consisting of small cells for the double rite of inhumation and cremation, chest tombs in terracotta, simple "a cappuccina" tombs; although it had suffered devastations ab antiquo, the epigraphic and decorative material made it possible to date the necropolis to the end of the 1st century and to the second half of the 2nd century. Impressive, moreover, is the Roman necropolis that came to light between the years 1887-1908 between the bastions of the Belvedere and the Vatican Gardens, near the present entrance of the Vatican Museums and the vie Leone IV, Famagosta and Sebastiano Veniero. It is a complex of sepulchral cells in opus reticulatum and in brick built along the Via Trionfale which at that point ran 7.50 m. lower than the present street level. Among the tombs one of the best known is that of the shoemaker who had his shop at Porta Fontinale at the end of the 1st century and whose expressive portrait is admired today in the Capitoline Museum; the tomb of a poet descended from a freedman of the emperor Claudius, of a native of Caria, and then freedmen, a few imperial slaves, many of the Aemilii, the Asinii, the Hirtii, the Lucani, the Terentii, the Valerii (Bull. arch. com., 1887, pp. 52-56; 1890, p. 332; 1891, pp. 70-76; 1906, pp. 321-26). Also in the year 1930 a cubiculum with the double rite of cremation and inhumation was identified along the new road to the Gardens near the fountain called della Galera. Of pagan tombs that came to light for the construction of the new basilica, Maffeo Vegio, T. Alfarano and G. Grimaldi left accounts. When, under Nicholas V, when the construction of the apse of the new basilica was begun, Maffeo Vegio recognized an «insignis locus sepulturae gentilium causa fabricatus, continens etiam urnulas more eorum cineribus plenas» (G. B. De Rossi, Inscr. Chr., II, Rome 1888, p. 349, 8). Tiberius Alfarano writes that when it was decided to rebuild the campanile in the year 1574, a burial chamber as large as a chapel was found, with painted walls and with tombs in the walls both for whole bodies and for cinerary urns. He likewise recalls a series of sarcophagi, and among them one with a representation of Bacchus, which was carried to the Vatican Palace, noting however that another similar sarcophagus had been found in his time in St. Peter's Square. Finally the same author points out another series of very beautiful mausoleums beneath the old chapel of the choir and beneath the old sacristy (De Basilica Vaticana, ed. Cerrati, Rome 1914, p. 151). In the excavation carried out in 1586 to extract the base of the obelisk, an inscription was found that recalled the household of Antonia, daughter of Drusus (CIL, VI, 1489). The architect Flaminio Vacca wrote in his memoirs that in 1594 he had seen uncovered in the atrium of St. Peter's many sarcophagi on which were carved men in toga with books in hand or with garlands on their heads, whom he took to be philosophers or poets. G. Grimaldi reports as found in 1612 beneath the atrium of St. Peter's the inscription of Claudia Hermionis Archimima; her heirs declared that she was the greatest of her time; perhaps she was a Jewess, judging by the initial expression «dormitioni» (CIL, VI, 1010b); today it is in the Lapidary Gallery at the Vatican.

In the same atrium of St. Peter's was found the cippus set up for the imperial freedman Tiberius Claudius Severianus (CIL, 15263); the epitaph of a M. Manenius Hermes and his wife Manneia Charesteni (CIL, 21998); the inscription of Cornelia Irene to her father Gaius Cornelius Cerealis (CIL, VI, 16174); that of Gessia Adiecta to her ninety-two-year-old husband P. Ragonius Epaphroditus (CIL, VI, 25354); that of the spouses Flavius Zosimus and Minucia Successa (CIL, VI, 1858). From the same foundations were likewise extracted the funerary inscriptions of a certain Verus to his wife Iulia

Pudentilla (CIL, VI, 20648 a) and of a M. Aurelius Eutyches with his wife Aurelia Appia. In the foundations of the new chapel of the choir, in 1611, an inscription was found dedicated to Q. Herennius Etruscus Decius Caesar by the silversmiths and by the «exceptores vini», and the epitaph of a M. Ragonius Blastus and family, now in Paris (CIL, VI, 25338). From two reports of the canon Ugo Ubaldini published by M. Armellini (Le chiese di Roma, 2nd ed., 1891, pp. 700-18) and H. Lietzmann (Petrus und Paulus in Rom, 2nd ed., Berlin 1927, pp. 305-10) we learn that in 1626, when Bernini was laying the foundations for the baldachin, the two mausoleums R and S were found, along with the statue of Fl. Agricola of Tivoli and its related metrical inscription (CIL, VI, 34182) and coins of Commodus, Faustina, Gallienus and Salonina. From one of these two mausoleums, as early as 1592, the inscription had been extracted of the famous ball player Ursus, idol of the Roman fans of the 2nd century A.D. (CIL, VI, 9797). In the works of Paul V for the confessio a sarcophagus was found mentioning two «clarissimae feminae»: Mesia Titiana and Pomponia Fadiola (CIL, VI, 31600). A grandiose sarcophagus in the form of a basin with Dionysiac scenes was found in 1776 in the foundations for the new sacristy of the Vatican Basilica. To the south of it were situated two large monuments with a central plan. The first, to the east, had an external circumference of about 110 m. Pope Symmachus transformed it into the basilica of St. Andrew, which he enriched and where he erected the oratories of Sts. Thomas, Cassian, Protus and Hyacinth, Apollinaris, and Sossius (Lib. pont., I, pp. 261, 265-66, nos. 17-19). The description of the basilica from the 8th century adds to these the oratories of St. Lawrence and St. Vitus (G. B. De Rossi, Inscr. Christ., II, Rome 1888, pp. 207, 222 ff.; 246, 257; A. Silvagni, op. cit., nos. 4106-10). In the time of Pietro Mallio it was called «vestiarium Neronis» (R. Valentini and G. Zucchetti, Codice topografico, III, p. 396). To remove the obelisk in 1586 a wide breach had to be made in the outer circuit of the building, which was demolished in 1776 when Pius VI erected the new sacristy on the design of the architect Marchionni. In the demolition there appeared a masonry wall dated by G. Marini to the first half of the 2nd century (Atti e monumenti dei fratelli Arvali, Rome 1795, p. 265). A recent exploratory test confirmed his judgment, and it was established that the building was constructed at a level seven meters lower than the floor of the Constantinian Basilica. Indeed G. B. De Rossi suspected that even the other building with a central plan, to the west, might be a construction earlier than the Constantinian Basilica (Bull. arch. crist., 3rd series, 3 [1878], p. 145). The said building to the west served as a burial place at the end of the 4th century for Maria, wife of Honorius, for Theodosius II, etc. In March 483 Cecina Basilius, praetorian prefect and patrician, assembled there the Roman senate and clergy (Lib. Pont., I, p. 254, no. 16). Pope Stephen II (752-57) transformed it into the basilica of St. Petronilla (Lib. Pont., I, pp. 455, 461, no. 62), where Paul I in 757 transferred the relics of the martyr (op. cit., I, p. 464). In 1077 Agnes, widow of the emperor Henry III, was buried there. In the descriptions of the Mirabilia it was identified as the «templum Apollinis»; Louis XI had it restored, and from then on it was indicated as the chapel of the kings of France; Cardinal de Villiers de la Groslaye chose it for his tomb and placed there Michelangelo's Pietà. The tombs were desecrated in 1579. The sarcophagus with the relics of St. Petronilla was translated in 1574 into the new Vatican Basilica. In the summer of 1950 an inhumation tomb with tiles was found on the Vatican hill in the foundations for the enlargement of the radio-receiving station. The factory mark of a brick belonged to the beginning of the 2nd century A.D. In the spring of 1953, during works at the Vatican minor seminary, a tomb «a forma» came to light.

III. THE EXCAVATIONS BENEATH THE BASILICA (1941-49)

The Roman burial ground brought to light in lowering the level of the Vatican Grottoes proves to be composed of two rows of burial cells or cubicula, all with their entrance facing south. The first row, to the south, is later than the second, to the north, which is arranged with its back walls against the hill; and while in this row the monuments follow one another without interruption, to the point that the left wall of the one to the east joins the following one to the west; in the first row, to the south, a passage (ambitus) had to be left to allow access to the tombs to the north, overcoming a considerable difference in level.

The axis of the Roman burial ground is not the same as that chosen for the Constantinian Basilica, but slants toward the southwest. The burial ground had most of its vaults destroyed by the Constantinian architects, because these exceeded the level chosen for the floor of the Basilica, and everything was completely filled in with dump material. The first mausoleum of the southern row, Z, had its entrance wall and part of its two sides demolished by the Constantinian architects in order to build the great southern foundation wall of the central nave, just as it also had its vault destroyed. Originally it was composed of four large arcosolia for inhumation, superimposed two by two in the three walls, which were decorated with plaster on a red ground, enlivened by garlands of flowers and by animals; beneath the window at the center of the back wall is an Egyptian deity in profile facing left, holding a staff with the right hand while the left clutches the characteristic ankh. A tall band gathers at the sides the fabric of the turquoise-blue garment with geometric embroidery in green and white.

In one of the upper arcosolia of the wall facing left, a sumptuous sarcophagus of Greek marble was placed, whose lid displays a Bacchic dance and a Silenus on an ass preceding toward a cylindrical altar for the sacrifice of a goat and the offering of incense. The front of the sarcophagus presents the triumph of Dionysus on a chariot drawn by a Satyr, preceded by a group of Maenads and Satyrs with Pan and Silenus advancing toward the island of Naxos to the discovery of the sleeping Ariadne. The sarcophagus is in a perfect state of preservation. On the same wall to the right, a terracotta sarcophagus was decorated on the outside with a marble slab carved with hippocamps and strigils. An arcosolium on the right wall received a sarcophagus that has at its center the representation of Dionysus, covered with a deer skin with the thyrsus and with the kantharos with which he gives drink to the panther; on the right a satyr grasping a wineskin and supporting the infant Dionysus; on the left Dionysus crowned with vine leaves. The cella in the last period (ca. the 2nd half of the 3rd century) received in the surviving arcosolium at the bottom of the left wall a Christian tomb, as demonstrated by the epitaph painted within an ansate cartouche, where in red letters on the white plaster the deposition of a deceased woman is recorded, accompanied by the symbols of the dove and the palm. This demonstrates that this monument had passed by inheritance to Christians or that the members of the family themselves had converted. But, as will be seen, it is not the only example of Christians buried in monuments originally pagan.

Further east, a small passage on a slight ascent leads, as will be seen, to the northern row of sepulchral monuments, and immediately one sees rising on the right, in its masonry of careful brick facing with interstices outlined by a line of lime, another mausoleum, intact on the outer west side up to its corner pilaster with capital. The outer wall of its facade is likewise intact on the west, and in a panel is set a polychrome mosaic of small tesserae representing the battle of the Amazons. The interior with a red background is divided by a series of double and broad superimposed arcosolia; the decoration in the lower zones offers satyrs, confronted peacocks, swimming ducks, sea monsters, Nereids, baskets and garlands of flowers; in the upper zones mythical scenes are represented, and among these the myth of Ariadne recurs; in the dividing pillars are nimbed sileni. The floor was paved with polychrome marbles constituting the typical "opus sectile" decoration. The space was occupied by two sarcophagi: the first, very large, was found with the lid broken, on which were represented the portraits of the two deceased and at the center the label with the inscription: "Q. Marcius Hermes sibi et Marciae Thrasonidis dignissimae coniugi vivis posuit". The two spouses were therefore two freedmen of the very well-known Roman family Marcia; the surname Hermes betrays his non-Roman origin, confirmed by the portrait, which shows him with curly hair, a short beard and a distinctive nose; his wife Marcia Trasonis has her hair parted in two, leaving her ears free, from which hang large earrings, a hairstyle in keeping with the fashion of the first half of the 3rd century AD; Marcia clasps in her right hand a pomegranate, a fruit sacred to Proserpina. The two portraits were executed after the sarcophagus had been carved, and the two busts had already been roughed out beforehand; it was only after the purchase that the portraits were finished.

The chest of the sarcophagus is divided into five compartments; two are the usual strigillated panels; in the left corner a young woman plays the double flute, in the center stands an aedicula placed between two fluted columns with Corinthian capitals and ending in an arch, decorated with hippocamps and theatrical masks; the panel is occupied by Dionysus, who clasps a "cantharus" in his left hand and the thyrsus in his right; from beneath his right arm a satyr is claimed to emerge; on the left, at the feet of the deity, a small faun rides a panther, while in the background the shoots of a vine rise up to crown the head of the deity with their leafy tendrils. In the right corner of the sarcophagus a sturdy satyr dances while supporting the infant Dionysus. On the two sides two winged griffins stand guard over the deceased. It is known that a sarcophagus with Bacchic scenes was found in 1772 during the construction of the new Sacristy of St. Peter in the time of Pius VI and now stands in the Vatican Museum.

The second sarcophagus contains on its lid the inscription "Marcia Urbica to her dearest sister Marcia Felicitas" between the four genii of the seasons, and on the chest, in the center, the bust of the deceased with the characteristic hairstyle that was in fashion at the time of Otacilia Severa, wife of the emperor Philip, then two strigillated panels and at the two corners the two Dioscuri Castor and Pollux with the characteristic "pileus"; with one hand they support the spear and with the other the horse's bridle. To the east of the Mausoleum another mausoleum, X, has been found, whose inner walls have two rows of arcosolia in which scenes analogous to those of the preceding mausoleum I were painted, for example, the characteristic representation of the discovery of Ariadne. On the back wall, opposite the entrance, the remains of a multicolored mosaic decoration were found. The entrance wall, arranged to the south, as in the other monuments, was destroyed by the foundation of one of the pillars built in the 16th century to support the floor of the new Basilica. The small surviving part presents niches for cinerary urns.

The mausoleums of the second row are arranged higher than the preceding ones against the hill, all with their entrance facing south along a small lane or iter that runs from east to west. While in the preceding row there was space li-

there was space between one mausoleum and another, in this second row the monuments are set against one another without interruption: the back wall is against the hill and behind it, in the exploratory test pits carried out by the architects of the Fabbrica, virgin soil was found. Several of them have stairways arranged toward the east that either led to an upper chamber or allowed one to descend directly from the hill; in that case one must suppose a road to the north parallel to the alignment of the mausoleums themselves from east to west.

The burial monument furthest to the east, A, that is toward St. Peter's Square, could not be demolished because it is situated beneath the extension of the Basilica built by Maderno between 1606-15, who, instead of continuing the system of supporting the floor of the new Basilica by means of pillars and vaults, preferred to fill the difference in level with rubble material. The architects of the Fabbrica therefore limited the archaeological investigation to the front wall alone of the mausoleum, bringing to light its facade, where above the door the original inscription was still found in its place. Indeed its heirs transcribed without further ado that part of the will of Popilius Heracla which referred to the burial monument: "Ex codicilla triplicibus Popilii (i) / Heraclae C. Popilius Heracla heredibus salut(em) / Vos heredes mei rogo iubeoque / fideique vestrae committo uti / monumentum mihi facietis in Vatic(ano) / ad circum iuxta monumentum Ulpi / Narcissi ex VI. N. In quam rem / numerabit Novia Trophime III N. / et coheres eius III N. ibique reliquias / meae et Fadiae Maximae uxoris meae si quid ei humanitus acciderit poni volo. / Cuius monumenti ius lego libertis liberta / busq(ue) meis et quos testamento manumisero / sive quem in statu libertatis reliqui, et hoc amplius / Noviae Trophime libertis libertabusq(ue) eius / posterisque supra scriptorum. Et itum aditum am / bitum sacrificique faciendi causa ad id monu / (men)tum uti ei liceat".

C. Popilius Heracla instructs Novia Trophime and her co-heir to build him a monument "in Vatic(ano) ad circum iuxta monumentum Ulpi Narcissi"; that is, in the Vatican near the circus. Therefore the circus must be sought not within the area of the burial ground but in its vicinity, and since all the burial cells have their facade oriented to the south, which suggests an immediate access road, it must be concluded that between the burial ground and the circus there must have run a road, probably the new Aurelia.

To the west of the mausoleum of Popilius Heracla there adjoins another monument B²-B which resembles in its architectural arrangement a group of those discovered in the Roman burial ground of the Isola Sacra; that is, it is composed of a first open-air part B¹, with niches for cinerary jars in the side walls; at a later time a masonry stairway was added on the right. Opposite the entrance there then opened the vaulted cella, B, which at the time of discovery showed evident traces of a double pictorial decoration; the older with garlands, interwoven multicolored discs, gazelles, birds, vases and baskets of flowers; at the center Helios on his chariot (v. NIMBO); in the four corners the personifications of the four seasons; to this period belong the cinerary jars arranged in the niches, whereas at a later time the decoration became heavier and coarser with peacocks, birds and imitation of veined and polychrome marbles; to this period belong the inhumation tombs and among these, in a terracotta chest, was laid Fannia Redenta, as is learned from the inscription engraved on a reused base: "di(s) m(anibus) / Fanniae Redempta / e quae vixit ann(is) XX / mens(ibus) V (dieb(us) VI / i Aureli(us) Aug(ustorum duorum) lib(ertus) Her / mes coniugi in / comparabili cum / qua vixit ann(is) XX / XXII". The mosaic floor with white and black tesserae shows two doves facing a vase. The double decoration and the inscription of "Fannia Redempta," whose husband Aurelius Hermes was a freedman of Diocletian and Maximian, demonstrate that the monument, slightly later than that of Popilius Heracla, that is from the middle of the 2nd century A.D., was in use until the Constantinian age.

Opposite the mausoleum is a small sarcophagus for a child who lived only eleven months and ten days, as is read on the upper edge of the sarcophagus itself, which on the front is decorated with three putti supporting a garland of fruits and flowers; on the two sides are carved on one side the father and on the other the mother in an attitude of grief.

The following mausoleum to the west, C, still has in place the inscription above the door; from it one learns that it was built by a freedman of the well-known Roman family "Tullia": "L. Tullius Zethus fecit sibi et / Tulliae Athenaidi coniugi bene / merenti et Tulliae Secundae et / Tullio Athenaeo filis libertis libertabusque". The interior was originally vaulted with polychrome stuccoes of which some remnant remains; the floor was mosaic with white and black tesserae; on the back wall, in the remains of the decoration, one distinguishes the figure of a charioteer of the green faction with the palm of victory; there too were two cippi belonging to Tullia Secunda and to Tullius Athenaeus, the two children of the owner; moreover five sarcophagi filled with bones were placed there at the time of the demolition of the burial ground. One of the sarcophagi was placed for a certain "Lucia Alcestia Hedonis" by her husband "M. Ulpius Pusinnio" who in turn had buried in another sarcophagus his son "Marcus Ulpius Pusinnio Cupitianus"; in a third sarcophagus beneath the bust of the deceased is the combat of two cocks.

The mausoleum D is simpler; it is in opus reticulatum, like mausoleum B, called that of Fannia, and is composed of two parts, that is, an open-air vestibule and a cella with niches and cinerary urns. From the inscriptions existing there with palms it seems that some of the deceased were charioteers of the circus.

Richer instead is the following mausoleum E, which we shall call that of the Aelii. The exterior offers careful brick masonry with decoration also in brickwork with carved polychrome cornices and with pedimented windows of the same type characteristic of some at the Isola Sacra. The interior had a mosaic floor, decoration in polychrome stuccoes on the walls and in the vault, with niches flanked by small columns also in stucco; on the west wall above are painted two peacocks facing a vase; on the right wall a stairway was built. The tombs with large arcosolia below were for the rite of inhumation. Among the inscriptions still in place is remembered the one that says: "T. Aelio Aug(usti) lib(erto) Tyranno qui fuit a commentariis prov(inciae) Belgicae". Titus Aelius Tyrannus was a freedman of Titus Aelius Hadrianus Antoninus Pius, who was emperor from the year 138 to 161; during this period, if not earlier, there died to Aelius Tyrannus his twenty-one-year-old son, as attests the inscription on his tomb in which one reads: "Urbano Aug(usti) vern(ae) adiutori tabulari rationis patrimoni... Tyrannus Aug(ustus) lib(ertus) et Aelia Urbana parentes". A third inscription commemorates the mother of "Tyrannus" by the name of "Aelia Urbana": "D. M. S. Aeliae Urbanae matri karissimae Tyrannus filius". Inside this monument were found two valuable cinerary urns in alabaster, one of which with a head of a Gorgon.

The following mausoleum, F, is quite large and was the first to appear during the work of lowering the level. Its exterior, faced with brick, stands intact up to the crowning cornice, at a height of 4.80 m from the original Roman ground level; it had windows decorated with terracotta carvings and with two reliefs; on the right, an architectural prospect in foreshortening with a receding row of columns and a coffered ceiling — a rare example of foreshortening that would later be found in the Virgil codex of the Vatican Library; on the left, a partridge. The interior presents, on the back wall, an apsidal niche between two small stucco columns with the scene of Venus rising from the waters, supported by two tritons. On the lower side walls, above broad arcosolia, rest the niches for the cinerary urns, separated by small stucco columns; on the upper part of the left wall is a landscape with a bull and a ram. The ceiling, destroyed for the construction of the Basilica, was a coffered vault in stucco and polychrome painting. In the niches are some marble urns, well decorated with garlands, rams' heads, and birds. The inscriptions carved on them give, on a rich cippus: "M(arco) Caetenni Antigono et Tulliae Secundae coniugi eius : d(is) M(anibus) / M(arci) Caetenni Ganymedis / vixit ann(is) XXXVII / M(arcus) Caetennius Secundus / colliberto suo"; then "d(is) m(anibus) / M(arco) Caetenni Tertio fecit M(arcus) Caetennius / Chilo colliberto santissimo"; "d(is) m(anibus) / M(arco) Caetenni Chry / seroti M(arcus) Caetennius Antigonus / Iun(ior) patrono b(eue)m(erenti) / f(ecit)"; "d(is) m(anibus) Caetenniae Prociae / coniugi carissimae / que vix(it) ann(os) XX / M(arcus) Aurelius Filetus / benemerenti titulu possuit". In a second period, tombs for whole corpses were made in the back wall: the first for a Lucius Tullius Hermadion; the second, still later, and with an inscription of Christian flavor: "Siricius / annorum XXV / mesorum V / uxor fecit virgi/nio suo cum quo / bene vixit ann(is) VIII". In the floor, moreover, there is still preserved a tomb closed by a large marble slab on which one reads: "mire ispecie et castitati eius Aemiliae Gorgoniae quae vixit ann(is) XXVIII mes II d(iebus) XXVIII Dormias in pace coniugi dulcissime fecit". Below are carved two confronted doves with an olive branch. To the left of the epitaph is represented the deceased, "anima dulcis Gorgonia", while drawing water, the symbol of eternal refreshment. The expressions of the inscription and the symbols clearly attest the Christian faith of the deceased. Thus even in this monument, originally pagan, Christians were later buried: almost certainly a Siricius; undoubtedly Aemilia Gorgonia. Against the outer door of the mausoleum of the Caetennii was placed a sarcophagus of Greek marble with two figures carved in the corners, while in the center of the lid and of the sarcophagus itself one read: "d(is) m(anibus) Ostoriae Che / lidonis c(larissimae) f(eminae) Ostorii Euho/diani consulis / designati / filiae in / compara / bilia castita/tis et amoris / erga maritum / exempli femi/nae Vib(ius) Iolaus / a memoria imp(eratoris) Augusti / uxori". The sarcophagus was opened and the corpse of Hostria Chelidone (Swallow) was found, still embalmed, laid upon a thin layer of hydraulic lime; it was wrapped in purple cloth and covered from head to foot by a delicate gold veil. On the left arm the deceased wore a bracelet of yellow gold, fully rounded, a little worn from use but weighing 75 gr. of gold, with three faces decorated in relief with small crosses, figurines and small masks, a precious example of goldsmithing of the Syrian type.

Adjoining the mausoleum of the Caetennii a small vaulted monument, G, was built, with a decoration of small circles that recalls that of the oldest period of the mausoleum known as that of Fannia Redempta. Characteristic is the fact that the niches containing the ollae with the ashes were later walled up again and this was then plastered and decorated.

The most sumptuous of the mausolea is certainly that of H, belonging to a family of freedmen, that is, to the well-known Roman "gens" of the Valerii, which had its palace on the Caelian. The monument opens above an open courtyard in brick masonry with niches for cinerary urns. Opposite stands elegantly the entrance wall of the monument, in perfect brick masonry, divided by pilasters supported by Attic bases. Above the door is placed the marble inscription that says: "C(aius) Valerius Herma fecit et / Flaviae T(it) F(iliae) Olympiadi coniugi et / Valeriae Maximae filiae et C. Valerio / Olympiano filio et suis et libertis libertabusque posterisque eorum". Reused in a tomb near the sepulcher of the Apostle, the epitaph was found: "d(is) m(anibus) / C(aius) Valerius Herma dum / vivo mihi feci et / Flaviae T(it) f(iliae) Olympiadi coniugi". This inscription was certainly removed at the time of the construction of the Constantinian Basilica and of the filling of this mausoleum. The interior of the monument is entirely plastered in white, with the walls occupied in the upper zones by niches alternating in shape and separated by hermulae ending in male heads, with long hair, deeply sunken eyes, short beard and drooping moustache, of Dacian type; inside, the niches were all finely decorated, the small ones with dancing maenads and satyrs, the large ones with male figures in toga or female figures in palla arranged on small bases, with upper shelves occupied by writing implements, by the necessities for feminine toilette, by personifications of the earth and of aquatic divinities. Even at the back on the right, where a small space opens in which a staircase was made that ascended above, the stucco decoration continues in the niches; in the large central one is represented the personification of Hypnos (sleep) with bat wings, while in the upper cupola two little putti, also with bat wings, play with a cornucopia full of poppy stems. The son of the owner, whose portrait is in gilded stucco, was buried in a low arcosolium closed by a marble slab with the following inscription: "d(is) m(anibus) C(aius) Valerio Olympiano qui vixit annis III menses V dies XIII / C(aius) Valerius Herma pater". Another marble inscription still in its place recalls a permission of burial granted by Caius Valerius Herma. In the central niche of this mausoleum, Fr. Ferrua pointed out two rough heads traced in charcoal, one below the other, in one of which he read PETRV (Il sepolcro di s. Pietro è di certo nella Basilica Vaticana, in Messaggero, 16 Jan. 1952). In Oct. 1952 Prof. M. Guarducci believed she could read "Petrus roga T XS HTS pro sanctiis hom(in)bus Christianis (ad) co(r)pus tuum sep(ultis)". But the photographs, whether under normal light or ultraviolet and infrared rays, or under monochromatic lights, do not permit the proposed integration to be read with certainty. And, above, the image, held by Fr. Ferrua to be that of Paul, was identified by Guarducci as G. Christ. Inside the monument, before the reinforcement, some sarcophagi were gathered; among these notable is the one with a lid representing the return from the hunt; the label with the inscription and a bust with the face only sketched. The inscription carved on the label and with the last line on the upper edge of the chest says: "D(is) M(anibus) Valerius Vasatulus vixit annis XXXI m(ensibus) IIII d(iebus) X h(oris) III Valeria Florentia cuius fecit marito suo anime benemerenti d(e)p(ositio) eius idus s(e)pt(e)m(bres)". The expression "anime benemerenti" and the indication of the "depositio" lead one to suppose him a Christian. In the chest repaired by the ancients themselves and perhaps therefore reused is the well-known scene of the hunt for wild beasts.

The last monument in the series was excavated in the year 1946; it lies more or less beneath the spot where the triumphal arch of the Constantinian Basilica stands, between the two eastern piers of Michelangelo's dome. This monument was erected before the two that were later built against it, that of the Valerii to the east and that of the Caetennii to the west; but its facade was demolished in the Constantinian period and replaced by a continuous wall without a door, thicker and more projecting than the original one. The vault was likewise largely destroyed by the Constantinian filling; what remains of it shows polychrome panels with stucco moldings; but traces can be made out of an older decoration that must also have been on the walls and on the original floor. Its side walls contained a large arcosolium below for inhumation and above it niches for the ollae; higher up on the right is painted a large duck and on the left a peacock among roses and violets. On the back wall above, two swans grasp two strings of pearls hanging from a central candelabrum; below is a large apsidal niche with a central shell and small stucco columns at the sides; to the right and left two frescoes refer to the myth of Alcestis and Admetus; on the left Admetus comforts his wife Alcestis, ready to sacrifice herself for him; on the right Hercules carries Alcestis away from Hades. Below are two more niches for ollae. In the floor, rising slightly from south to north, the mosaic decoration is largely preserved, in black on a white ground, with the rape of Proserpina and Mercury Psychopompus.

Still further west of the mausoleums described so far, another mausoleum, L, appears at once, making use of the wall of the preceding monument on the east, but it is earlier than the one that follows it to the west. It belongs to the gens Caetennia, already known as the inscription found on the outer wall, still in place, shows: « D. M. Caetenniae Hygiae quae vixit ann. XXI d. XIII M. Caetennius Hymnus filiae pientissimae et M. Caetennius Proculus sorori Earissimae fecerunt et sibi et libertis libertabusque suis posterisque eorum. H(oc) m(onumentum) h(eredem) n(on) s(equetur). H(uic) m(onumento) d(olus) m(alus) a(besto) ». The inscription is framed in a brick border surmounted by an axe on the right; on the left, likewise in brickwork, an amphora is placed. The outer facing is of smoothed bricks with an upper brick cornice; in the two jambs is the delimitation of the «locus religiosus», that is, XIII feet «in fronte» and XIX «in agro». The letters of the epitaph and the structure allow the mausoleum to be assigned to about the end of the 2nd century AD. The interior, examined only on the west, presented the characteristic decoration divided into three panels, like the preceding mausoleum of the Caetennii, that is, an arcosolium below and apsidal niches for ollae above; in the upper panel, in the broken masonry, a brick appeared bearing the factory mark with the names of the consuls of the year 142 AD (CIL, XV, 1063). The mausoleum was occupied from north to south by a large restraining wall of tufa blocks at the time of the construction of the Constantinian Basilica. There too was encountered a large wall of the early 17th century built of rubble with tufa, bricks and a quantity of broken marbles. Tiberio Alfarano relates that in the year 1574, while laying the foundations for a small portico in front of the high altar, a burial place entirely of mosaic was found, with figures that looked like horses, and that at the window of that burial place the following inscription was placed: « D. M. Iulio Tarpeiano vixit ann. I mes. VIII diebus XXVII Iulia Palatina et Maximus parentes fec(erunt) lib(ertis) libert(abus) posteris(que) eorum. H(oc) m(onumentum) h(eredem) n(on) s(equetur) » (CIL, VI, 20293).

The small mausoleum M was built in a narrow recessed area left between the monument L of the Caetennii to the east and the following one, N, of the Ebuzii, indeed making use of the pre-existing side walls. By the same means through which T. Alfarano saw this monument, it was entered during the recent exploration work, that is, through the same hole in the vault. Monument M was originally for cremation, as the cinerary ollae found behind the plaster of the back wall attest. In a second phase, however, the burial rite was changed and inhumation tombs were opened in the floor, which, judging by the scenes represented on the walls, undoubtedly belonged to Christians because of the subjects depicted there in mosaic. The mosaic decoration rests on a bed of stucco about 3 cm thick, on which the artist rapidly sketched the subject to be composed. The enamel tesserae are of different sizes and present a limited range of colors consisting of yellow, red, green in various shades, a little light blue, black and only a few gold tesserae. On the vault, against the yellow ground, the vine branches intertwine, starting from the four corners: in the center, on the chariot drawn by four fiery horses (two destroyed) stands Helios (the sun), with the radiate nimbus; it is the symbol of Jesus-Sun (Fr. Dölger, Sol Salutis, Gebet und Gesang in christlichen Altertum, Münster 1925, pp. 371-373). The back wall preserves only the stucco with the imprints of the fallen tesserae; the scene of the fisherman can be made out: a fish has taken the hook while a second fish flees. It is the symbolic scene to which Clement of Alexandria alludes in his Hymn to Christ (Paedagogus, nos. 23-29); the same scene is known in the sarcophagus of La Gayolle in France and in the Roman catacomb frescoes of St. Callixtus and of Domitilla. To the east, some tesserae and the imprints clearly reveal the representation of the prophet Jonah thrown from the ship and swallowed by the sea monster. On the left the traces of the Good Shepherd with a sheep on his shoulders and of the muzzle of a sheep below can be distinguished. The importance of these mosaics lies above all in the fact that, being certainly pre-Constantinian, they are the oldest known so far in Rome, earlier, for example, than those found by Fr. Marchi in the cemetery of Bassilla on the Via Salaria Vetus or the others in Priscilla.

To the east, a little to the south, is the mausoleum of the Ebuzii, N, of which only the façade is visible, preserving within a brick frame the original inscription: « d(is) M(anibus) M. Aebutius Charito fecit sibi et libertis libertabusque suis posterisque eorum d(is) M(anibus) C. Clodi Romani q(ui) vis(it) a(onos) XIX, m(ensem) 1, d(ies) XXI. L. Volusius Successus et Volusia Megiste filio dulcissimo emerunt in parte dimidia, et sibi posteris(que) suis lib(ertis) lib(ertabus) q(uae) p(osterisque) eorum h(uic) m(onumento) d(olus) m(alus) a(besto) ». The monument, slightly later than that of Cetennia Hygia, was made by Marcus Aebutius Charito and served for C. Clodius Romanus, for Lucius Volusius Successus and for Volusia Megiste. Still to the west and beneath the southern side of the confessio discovered by Paul V is mausoleum O, consisting of a kind of open rectangular enclosure, partly in opus reticulatum, and of a roofed cell. On the entrance wall, still in place, is the following inscription, which from its lettering can be dated to about the middle of the 2nd century A.D.: « T. Matuccio Pallanti patrono optimo fecerunt Matucci (duo) Betinus et Zmaragdus linteari et sibi liberisque suis posterisque eorum et libertis libertabusque suis ». The external masonry is very carefully executed with smoothed bricks. To the northeast of the enclosure there is a staircase. The interior of the mausoleum had a brick floor. The vault, on the other hand, was demolished as early as the Constantinian age. The walls were decorated with plaster in yellow and purple panels, in which the niches for the ollae were opened. Part of the mausoleum from north to south was later occupied by masonry structures for tombs built after the basilica was completed; some tombs above were placed very close to the base of the statue of Pius VI, which stood in the center of the confessio. It is evident that all the space immediately near the tomb of St. Peter was contested for burial after the basilica was completed. The staircase at the corner of the mausoleum is contemporary with it; in the space beneath the stairs a burial tomb was later inserted; but the staircase itself was cut through by the tombs made from the floor of the Basilica; among the marble fragments found, a small plaque of the end of the 2nd century was extracted, on which one reads: « d(is) M(anibus) / T. Ma(t)uccio Deme/trio q(ui) vix. ann. / XXIII (men...) T. Ma(tucciu (S Herm)a/iscus co(liber)tu(s) ».

The mausoleum of the Matuccii is like the other one of the Ebuzii, in the northernmost row; instead, to the south of the Matuccii come two monuments contiguous to each other from east to west, V and T.; they were built together and present many common features, not only in the masonry but also in the internal layout and in the decoration. The exterior of the two monuments is of brick; the back walls toward the north rest against the enclosure wall of the Matuccii, demonstrating that they are later. The internal decoration is distributed in the same way: that is, decoration with birds, peacocks, cocks; in U is depicted a genius with a nimbed head and a star on the forehead, riding and grasping a torch (lucifer). The other monument, T, is called that of Trebellena because inside, on the left entrance wall, there is a marble cinerary urn with the inscription: « d(is) M(anibus) Trebellenae Flaccillae, Valeria Taecina matri dulcissim(ae) fecit ». The mother Valeria Taecina was of the same group of the family of Valerius Hermas. Among the ashes of an urn a coin of the early Constantinian age was found.

Mausoleum R was partly cut at the end of the 6th century by the foundations of the inner wall of the semicircular confessio; it was then seen and partly explored in 1626, like the adjacent mausoleum S, when the foundations were laid for the two southern columns of the bronze baldachin of G. L. Bernini. Of these discoveries there are two accounts by the canon Ugo Ubaldini, one in Latin and the other in Italian (M. Armellini, Le chiese di Roma, 2nd ed., Rome 1891, pp. 700-18; H. Lietzmann, Petrus und Paulus in Rom, 2nd ed., Berlin 1927, pp. 305-10). Mausoleum S (ca. mid-2nd century) had its door demolished by the Constantinian foundation works and walled up again; the interior was used at the same time for inhumation burials below (with arcosolia) and for cinerary urns above; indeed a part of the upper zone to the west was transformed, at a later time, for inhumation tombs: three sarcophagi were found: in the first the deceased was represented as Meleager with Atalanta; on the lid, dolphins; it contained the bodies of a child and of an adult person, near whom were found a silver coin of Domitian, six bronzes of Marcus Aurelius and Commodus and a bronze of Septimius Severus; the second sarcophagus with strigils, at the ends has two female figures, one in the act of playing the lyre, the other intent on study. The third sarcophagus was for a child. In the foundation works, begun on 29 June 1626, sarcophagi and tombs of marble slabs were found at once; beneath an arcosolium a pit was found about 1.50 m deep from the floor; among the ashes were collected a coin of Maximian and one of Salonina, wife of Gallienus. At a later period a travertine sarcophagus was inserted between T and S. The bodies then found were placed in a polyandrum, on which was placed a lead plaque with the inscription: «Corpora santorum (p)rope sepulcrum S. Petri reperta cu(m) fundamenta effoderentur aeneis col(um)nis ab Urbano VIII super hoc forni(ce) erect(i)s hic (s)imul collec(t)a et re(po)sita a. 1626 2(8) iul(i)». Other plaques were placed in the other polyandra; that of the north-east polyandrum bore the date 1626, 17 augusti: and that of the polyandra to the west, 1626, 12 septembris.

To the west of S is mausoleum R, whose facade, however, was demolished by the foundation of the Constantinian apse of the Basilica; the interior was ruined by the insertion of tombs from the floor of the Basilica; on the back wall there remain traces of niches and part of a fluted column; a sarcophagus was inserted there with the images of St. Peter and St. Paul at the corners (v. cimitero cristiano). Below the floor a series of inhumation tombs was made down to a depth of 2.10 m. Above this space stood the foundation pillar of the south-west column of the Berninian baldachin; therefore the architects of the fabric filled the space with four thousand bricks. At a higher level, to the north of R, the space R¹ was found, whose internal structures were demolished by the confessio of Clement VIII; situated only 20 cm above its floor, composed of a layer of opus signinum, its entrance faced east; it is believed to have been the solarium of R. Between R and S a free space had to be left, because there was an ambitus for going up to the open area formed to the north of the apostolic tomb; it was therefore a service passage, similar to the stairway to the left of Mausoleum O of the Matucci. The place remained open, and above the entrance door there remains a trace of the small protective roof of the door itself, while on the outer western wall of S seats were made (cf. A. Ferrua, Nelle grotte di S. Pietro, in Civ. Catt., 1941, III, pp. 358-65 ff., 424-33 ff.; id., Nuove scoperte sotto S. Pietro, ibid., 1942, IV, pp. 73-86, 228-41; id., Lavori e scoperte nelle grotte di S. Pietro, in Bull. della Commis. Archeol., 70 [1942], pp. 95-106; id., Un mausoleo della necropoli scoperta sotto S. Pietro, in Atti della Pont. Accad. rom. di Arch., 3rd series, Rendiconti, 23-24 [1947-49], pp. 217-29; O. Perler, Die Mosaiken der Iuliergruft in Vatikan, Freiburg 1953).

IV. THE BASILICA OF CONSTANTINE

The Constantinian origin of the Basilica built over the tomb of St. Peter (the whole question of the Apostle's sepulcher is treated at v. PIETRO) is established, says Duchesne, not so much by the notices of the Liber Pontificalis, in the biography of Silvester (I, p. 124), as by the monuments themselves, such as the aforementioned niello inscription on the golden cross placed by Constantine and Helena and therefore not later than 337 (A. Silvagni, Inscriptiones christianae urbis Romae septimo saec. antiquiores, II, Rome 1935, n. 4093). One should bear in mind, however, the very recent observation of P. Franchi de' Cavalieri concerning the highly uncertain date of St. Helena's death, which cannot be held to have occurred in the last years of Constantine (Constantiniana [Studii e testi, 171], Vatican City 1953, p. 164). Moreover, in the roofing of the Basilica there were used tiles bearing the factory mark "Dominus" N(oster) Constantinus Aug(ustus)" (G. B. De Rossi, Inscr. Chr., II, Rome 1888, p. 230). In 1882 A. Frothingham published a study on the 4th-century mosaic placed in the triumphal arch, destroyed in 1525, where the emperor Constantine was represented in the act of offering the basilica to the Savior (G. B. De Rossi, Bull. arch. crist., 4th series, 1 [1882], p. 80 ff.); in golden letters one read there the inscription "Quod. duce te, mundus surrexit in astra triumphans, hanc Constantinus victor tibi condidit aulam" (A. Silvagni, op.cit., n. 4092). Some have wished to see in the duce Christ, but De Rossi and Wilpert hold that the duce is Peter.

A second inscription, which is not later than the year 350, was set in the apse and transcribed in the epigraphic sylloge of Einsiedeln: "Iustitiae sedes fidei domus aula pudoris / haec est quam cernis pietas quam possidet omnis / quae patris et filii virtutibus inclyta gaudet auctoremque suum genitorem laudibus aequat" (ibid., n. 4094). In it were extolled the merits of the emperor Constantine and of his son Constans, who had brought the building to completion. G. Wilpert held that the epigram transcribed from the epigraphic sylloges "in fronte basilicae Vaticanae" or "in imagine Constantini," with an allusion to the healing from a long illness, was also of Constantinian date, against the opinions of L. Duchesne (Lib. Pont., I, p. cxiii) and of T. Mommsen (Lib. Pont., p. xxxii, 6). Wilpert saw in the Vatican image of Constantine the first of the series of those ordered by him, as on his gold coins and in the painting at the entrance of his palace in Constantinople (La fede nella Chiesa nascente, Vatican City 1938, pp. 205-207). Justly H. Grisar (Analecta romana, I, Rome 1899, p. 117) and A. Silvagni (op. cit., n. 4123) hold the inscription to be much later, that is, when the Constantinian legend had already arisen. Moreover, in the apse one admired the mosaic representing the Savior seated on a throne handing the law to Peter; on the other side, St. Paul. This scene constituted the prototype for all the others that are found repeated also in the sarcophagi. In the lower part the mosaic represented the etimassia, or preparation of the divine throne for the judgment; in the center the lamb with the four rivers of paradise and twelve sheep, six coming forth from the city of Jerusalem, representing the Church sprung from the people of Israel, six from the city of Bethlehem, the Church of the Gentiles. The mosaic was restored a first time by Pope Severinus in the year 640 (Lib. pont., I, p. 329); a second time by Innocent III (1198-1216), who added there his own image and the figure of the Roman Church; it was destroyed together with the apse in the year 1592.

To return to the documentation of the Constantinian Basilica, it should be added that in 1607, in the foundations of the portico, there was found a gold medal which had on one side the likeness of St. Peter and on the other a small cross with Constantine and Helena indicated by their names. The opinions of scholars concerning the date of the construction of the Constantinian Basilica vary. In the 18th century G. Poleni held the date of 326, as that of the Constantinian vicennalia, to be more probable for the beginning of the Constantinian Basilica (Memorie istoriche della gran cupola del Tempio Vaticano, Padua 1748). N.-M. Denis Boulet proposed placing the beginning of the construction of the basilica between the years 325-29 and the end on Dec. 25, 335 (A des fouilles de St-Pierre, in Recherches de science, 34 [1947], pp. 385-406). Von Schönebeck proposed for the beginning of the works the date of 326, that is, that of the vicennalia of Constantine (Beiträge zur Religionspolitik des Maxentius u. Constantin, in Klio, Suppl. 30 [1930], p. 89), while W. Seston proposed 333, the year in which both the prefect of the City and the two consuls were Christians (Revue d'hist. des Religions, 1945 and Hypothèse sur la date de la basilique constantinienne de St-Pierre de Rome, in Cahiers archéologiques, 2 [1947], pp. 153-59). A. Pignani followed the opinion of Poleni and of A. Alföldi for the beginning of the Vatican Basilica in 326 (L'état actuel de la question constantinienne, in Historia, 1 [1950], pp. 82-96). Father E. Kirschbaum emphasized that in 336, the date of the Depositio martyrum, the feast of June 29 was celebrated for St. Peter also in Catacumbas, since the basilica was under full construction in that year and it could not have been completed before 350 (Petri in Catacumbas, in Misc. lit. in honorem L. C. Mohlberg, I, Rome 1948, pp. 221-29). A hypothesis on the duration of the construction of the basilica was put forward in 1950 by E. Josi (Rend. Pont. Accad. Rom. di Arch., 25-26 [1949-51], p. 4 and Comptes rendus de l'Acad des Inscr. et belles lettres, 1950, p. 434 ff.), accepted by J. Carcopino (Revue des deux mondes, Oct. 15, 1952; Etudes d'hist. chrét., Paris 1953, p. 129). This hypothesis had arisen following the observation that in the area coming from the "Phrygianum," today in the Lateran museum, studied by O. Marucchi and by others (v. the relevant bibliography in Esplorazioni, cit., p. 14 ff.) it was declared that the sacrifices had had to be interrupted for 28 years, and that therefore this interruption could have been caused by the construction of the basilica. One must bear in mind, however, that the exact location of the "Phrygianum" is not known and that on the other hand it continued to exist at least until 390, as is attested by the area n. 503 of that year. The date of interruption, at least from the hours that have come down to us, should be fixed between the years 319 (CIL, VI, 508) and 350 (CIL, VI, 508); therefore one could imagine that the works began ca. that time and were finished ca. 350; the inscription of the apse indeed recalls the son of Constantine who continued his father's enterprise. It is further the case that at Christmas 353 Pope Liberius gave the veto in St. Peter's to Marcellina, sister of St. Ambrose (Ambrose, De Virginitate, III, 1: PL 16, 231). Recently P. Franchi de' Cavalieri accepts with a perhaps the date of 333 for the beginning of the works and places their end a long time after the death of Constantine (Constantiniana [Studi e testi, 171], Vatican City 1953, pp. 119-20).

From the street level, by means of 35 steps one ascended to a broad square paved with marbles, which led, through three bronze doors, into the atrium, composed of a quadriportico supported by 46 columns, 62 m. long and 56 m. wide. In the middle of the central square laid out as a garden — whence the name Paradisus given to the atrium — stood the cantharus, or fountain for ablutions. Later Pope Symmachus (489-514) decorated the atrium with mosaics. In the Middle Ages it was then embellished with a series of 12 frescoes representing the lives of the apostles Peter and Paul. According to M. Cerrati, they were not earlier than 1258, that is, the time of Alexander IV. From the portico one entered the Basilica through five doors, of which three led into the central nave and the other two into the side aisles. The middle door was called the median, royal or silver door, on account of the silver panels with which it had first been covered by Honorius I (625-38; Lib. Pont., I, p. 323) and then by Leo IV (847-55; Lib. Pont., II, p. 127); Eugenius IV in 1445 placed there the one in enamelled and gilded bronze cast by Filarete, which Paul V later had adapted in 1619 to the central door of the new Basilica (reproduced in vol. V, pl. 85). To the right of the main door was the door called "Roman," because it was usually used by the Romans, unlike the other one further north, called "Guidonian," after the guides who led the pilgrims there. To the left of the main door, the next door was called "Ravennan," because through it entered those who lived beyond the Tiber, the Tuscans and Transpadanes. The last door to the south was called "of judgment," because the dead were carried through it. The interior of the Constantinian Basilica consisted of a rectangular area divided lengthwise by four rows of 22 columns, thus forming five naves: the central one was about 24 m. wide; its columns were 9 m. high, with bases, Corinthian capitals and architraves; above them rose a wall reaching a height of 40 m. to support the roof; in the walls eleven windows were opened that lit the basilica. The two high walls of the central nave received a first decoration at the time of Pope Liberius (352-366), who had the medallions (clipeate images) painted there with the portraits from St. Peter to Liberius himself, who bore the square nimbus because he was still living. This series of portraits of the bishops of Rome, imitated in antiquity at Naples, is the oldest of all, because the original medallions of the ancient basilica of St. Paul are a century later. In St. Peter's, Nicholas III (1277-80) added a second series. Above the medallions the walls were divided into three compartments; in the upper one, between the windows, were represented the Patriarchs, the Prophets and the Apostles; their images measured 4 m. in height. In the two lower compartments there were 46 scenes per side of episodes from the Old and New Testaments: on the right 45 scenes from the creation of the world to the crossing of the Red Sea, on the left another 46 from the Annunciation to Pentecost. The paintings were restored at the time of Gregory IV (827-44); redone under Pope Formosus (891-94), restored several times thereafter, also by P. Cavallini and by Giotto, according to Vasari. The four lesser naves were about 9 m. wide; the columns that divided them were 6 m. high, and on them rested round arches which in the two inner naves reached a height of 18.50 m., while the outer naves were 14 m. high. The five naves ended toward the apse with arches that led into the transverse nave, or transept, which measured 18 m. in width. The arch at the end of the central nave was supported by two great columns and was covered with the mosaic decoration already mentioned. Gregory of Tours notes the extraordinary number of 100 columns in the Vatican Basilica; the number is exact, as R. Krautheimer has pointed out, in The Art Bulletin, 31 (1949), pp. 211-13. In fact the five naves were divided by four rows of 22 columns each, thus forming 88 columns; 8 were the columns in the transept, therefore 96, and 4 were those of porphyry that supported the ciborium, 100 in all. For the columns of the transept it suffices to see the drawing of the van

Heemskerk, preserved in the library of Stockholm and edited by Krautheimer himself. The roof is the part that most often underwent restoration. The oldest of which there is record were those of Gregory the Great (590-604), of Sergius I (688-701), of Adrian I (772-95), who had the beams brought from the woods of Spoleto; of Leo III (795-816), of Benedict III (855-58), of John XXI (1276-77), Benedict XII in 1341, Gregory XI in 1372; and again of Pius II and of Sixtus IV. Grimaldi measured a fir beam lowered in 1605; it was 133 palms long, that is, more than 29.50 m! Pope Damasus (366-84) had to carry out a grand work of reclamation upstream of the Vatican Basilica (v. further below: BAPTISTERY). After Damasus the first pope of whom there is record of works carried out at the tomb of St. Peter in the Vatican is Sixtus III (432-40), who, according to the biographer of the 6th century (Lib. Pont., I, p. 233), not only adorned the Confession — a name that appears here for the first time — with various silver objects for a total of 400 pounds, but obtained that the emperor Valentinian III offer a gold composition studded with precious stones representing the Savior with the twelve Apostles and with the heavenly Jerusalem with its twelve gates, a subject analogous to that offered by some Christian sarcophagi discovered in the Vatican, such as the one now in the Louvre Museum in Paris. The same pontiff had obtained, again from the emperor Valentinian, that he renew the famous ciborium or silver baldachin of the altar of the Lateran Basilica made by Constantine and carried off by the Vandals of Alaric. Perhaps these same had also damaged the Vatican Basilica, and this would explain the intervention of Sixtus III with Valentinian for the tomb of Peter in the V. His successor Leo I (440-61) had to repair the damage that the terrible earthquake of the year 443 brought to the two great basilicas of the Vatican and of the Ostian. The Pope had turned for the restoration of the Ostian Basilica to Galla Placidia, and for the Vatican Basilica he obtained the help of the former prefect and ordinary consul Marinianus and of his consort Anastasia. And certainly works were also carried out on the tomb of the Apostle, because the compiler of the palatine sylloge transcribed "in arca super corpus beati Petri" the inscription of Rufus Viventius Gallus, of senatorial rank, who in fulfillment of a vow had embellished the tomb itself (A. Silvagni, op. cit., n. 4125). The Liber pontificalis limits itself to writing that Leo I renewed after the earthquake — which is called divine fire — the basilicas of the blessed Peter and of the blessed Paul (I, p. 239). If in this Ostian Basilica Leo I was forced to replace as many as sixteen columns out of the forty of the central nave and to renew the roof, as the commemorative inscription still preserved in the upper cloister attests, the damage in the Vatican Basilica was not insignificant, where among other things the mosaic decoration of the Constantinian facade was also redone, as an inscription attests. It too was transcribed in the palatine sylloge; it asserts that the former prefect and former consul Marinianus, together with his noble consort Anastasia, following the entreaties of Pope Leo and to fulfill a vow made to the most blessed apostle Peter "made a foundation for the facade of St. Peter" (A. Silvagni, op. cit., n. 4102). Indeed the inscription was copied on the front of the facade itself near the mosaic where Christ was represented in the midst of the symbols of the four evangelists. Lower down, between the three windows, were represented the twenty-four elders of the Apocalypse arranged in groups of four. The mosaic was later restored in the time of Sergius I (678-701), certainly after the so-called Trullan Council of the year 692, because, in place of the damaged image of Christ, the Pope had the divine Lamb put up (Lib. Pont., I, p. 375). A codex of the 11th century preserved in the well-known college of Eton in England, coming from the celebrated Abbey of Farfa, contains a drawing of the facade of the Vatican Basilica, with the representation of the mosaics that decorated it. In the lower zone is drawn the scene of the funeral of Gregory the Great (H. Grisar, Analecta Romana, Rome 1899, pl. 10, reproduced in the entry GREGORY I). The mosaic of the facade was later restored under Innocent III (1198-1216) but without undergoing alterations. Gregory IX (1227-41) modified the facade; he opened in it six large three-light windows, three higher and three lower. In the tympanum a round rose window was opened, and above it a marble cross, today in the Vatican Grottoes. As for the mosaic decoration, at the top was the Savior enthroned between two figures, in whom some recognize Moses and Elijah, others Peter and Paul; then there were the symbols of the four evangelists, lower down between the windows four apostles, and below them the twenty-four elders. Pope Symmachus (498-514) restored the quadriportico and the atrium of St. Peter's and built the oratory of St. Andrew (Lib. Pont., I, pp. 261-62). Pelagius II (578-90) made the pulpit in the basilica, as was read in the dedicatory inscription engraved there (G. B. De Rossi, Inscriptiones christ., II, pp. 21, 55). To Gregory the Great is attributed the construction of the raised presbytery and the semicircular crypt, with its block altar (Lib. pont., I, p. 312). The altar of the raised presbytery was found inside that of Callistus II. It had its fenestella placed in the center of the western side (Explorazioni, cit., p. 173 ff.). Honorius I built on the left at the beginning of the portico a church in honor of the martyr Apollinaris of Ravenna (ibid., I, p. 323). Pope Donus (676-78) renewed the paving of the atrium properly so called, or quadriportico. John VII (v. 705-707) built the oratory in honor of the Madonna, resplendent with marbles and mosaics, and a document of slightly later date calls it "Praesepe"; it was demolished in 1606 and dispersed; the dedicatory inscription said "To the blessed mother of God the servant John, unworthy bishop, made [it]" (ibid., I, p. 385; G. B. De Rossi, Inscr. christ., II, p. 227). Gregory III (731-41) obtained from the exarch (of Ravenna) Eutychius six more vitinean columns, which he had brought to St. Peter's and arranged three on the right and three on the left in the presbytery before the Confession, near the other six ancient ones of the same kind. Above the said columns he placed beams covered with pure silver with images on one side of the Savior and the apostles and on the other of the Madonna and holy virgins, and above them still lilies and silver candelabra for a total weight of 700 pounds (Lib. Pont., I, p. 417). The vitinean columns are represented in a painting by Giulio Romano in the rooms known as those of Raphael in the Vatican and in the Hall of the Hundred Days at the Palazzo della Cancelleria. Cerrati holds that the removal of the vitinean columns took place around the year 1544, under Paul III, but it is not easy to establish the precise date of such a transfer. Today eight of the vitinean columns are in the loggias above the four great statues of the piers of the dome; one is in the first chapel on the right, that is, in the chapel where Michelangelo's Pietà is kept, two at the sides of the altar of St. Francis in the chapel of the Most Holy Sacrament (J. B. Ward Perkins, The Shrine of St. Peter and twelve spiral Columnar, in Journal of Roman Studies, 1952, pp. 21-33). Stephen II (752-57) built the bell tower, which he covered partly with gold leaf and partly with silver, and placed three bells in it to summon the people to the divine offices. Moreover he renewed the cantharus of the atrium, surrounded by eight columns of porphyry finely carved and supporting a dome of gilded bronze. Near the basilica, beyond the oratory of St. Andrew in the place called Mosileo, that is, mausoleum, he adapted a church in honor of St. Petronilla, in order to place her body there, and enriched the building with ornaments and silver baskets (Lib. Pont., I, pp. 454-55). His brother Paul I (757-67), his successor, completed there the translation of St. Petronilla from the cemetery of Domitilla on the Via Ardeatina (ibid., I, p. 464). Leo III (795-816) decorated the baptistery, enlarging it into a circular form, surrounding it with porphyry columns; he also placed a column in the middle of the basin and on top of it set a silver lamb from which water gushed (ibid., II, p. 17), and he carried out many other works (ibid., pp. 14-17, 29-31). Paschal I (817-24) built a great oratory in honor of the martyrs Processus and Martinian, whose relics he had transported from their tombs on the Via Aurelia, depositing them in a porphyry sarcophagus (ibid., II, p. 53). Gregory IV (827-44) transferred to St. Peter's the relics of the martyrs Sebastian, Tiburtius and Gorgonius (ibid., II, p. 74) and placed their relics under each of the three secondary altars in the oratory he built to transfer there the body of St. Gregory the Great, an oratory decorated with mosaics recalled by Gio-

Deacon John (S. Gregorii M. Vita, IV, 80: PL 75, 228); M. Andrieu has indicated its exact location "ante novellum secretarium" (Le chapelle de St Grégoire dans l'ancienne basilique Vaticane, in Rte. Arch. crist., 13 [1936], pp. 61-99). The altars of St. Sebastian and St. Tiburtius are still mentioned by Benedict the Canon around 1140 (Liber Censum, ed. Fabre-Duchesne, II, p. 143). Under the pontificate of Sergius II (844-46) occurred the sack by the Saracens, who not only did not spare the Vatican Basilica, but profaned the altar itself, as is read in the biography of his successor Pope Leo IV (847-55), who strove in every way to repair the outrages perpetrated by the Saracens; his whole biography is full of donations offered by the Pontiff in reparation for what had been stolen (Lib. Pont., II, pp. 106-109, 111-14, 116, 119, 121-23, 127-29, 133). After the 9th century, reports of restorations become ever scarcer. Cardinal Bosone in the life of Innocent II (ibid., II, p. 380) recalls how Peter of Peter Leo (Anacletus II) "tamquam sacrilegus predo" stripped the Vatican Basilica of its treasures, even tearing away the precious covering of the ciborium made by Leo IV (ibid., II, p. 121). Peter Mallius attests that Callixtus II (1119-24), seeing the high altar "nimia vetustate et lapidum percussionibus quodammodo violatum, optimis marmoribus vestit ed decoravit" and consecrated it on 25 March 1123 (cod. Vat. lat. 6757, f. 15 in G. B. De Rossi, Inscriptiones Christiane, II, 1, Rome 1888, p. 233). On the return of the popes from Avignon, Rome was reduced to such squalor as to have almost no longer the appearance of a city; the Leonine City was deserted, the roads leading to the Vatican Basilica were in ruins, and its very portico was crumbling. Pope Gregory XI (1370-78), re-entering Rome from Avignon on 17 Jan. 1377, was dismayed to see the squalor of the city reduced to no more than 20,000 inhabitants; in 1414, for the feast of St. Peter on 29 June, it was not possible to procure a lamp to light before the Confession. To have an idea of what had accumulated there with the passage of time, it suffices to cast a glance at the plan of the ancient basilica drawn by Tiberio Alfarano (v.) Vatican canon (1544-96). The plan, executed in 1571 (reproduced in vol. I, pl. 64), is accompanied by a description that is fundamental for the study of the ancient building, as G. B. De Rossi and Duchesne have shown, and more recently M. Cerrati, who edited its critical edition (v. plate outside the series).

IV. THE BAPTISTERY

The construction of the imposing Constantinian Basilica had altered the water system, and the waters had ended up invading the many tombs that were on the slope of the hill. An epigram of Pope Damasus speaks of the works he entrusted to the deacon Mercurius to capture the veins of water in the Vatican hill and use them for the fountain in the atrium and the baptismal font (A. Ferrua, Epigrammata Damasiana, Vatican City 1942, pp. 88-93). That the baptistery is then the work of Damasus is attested by another epigram of the same Pope: «antistes Christi composuit Damasus», handed down by the sylloge of Lorsch (A. Ferrua, ibid., pp. 93-94). At the end of the 4th century the poet Prudentius celebrates the work of Damasus (Peristephanon, XII, no. 31 ff.; CSEL, 61, pp. 412-22). These verses were referred to the Damasan baptistery situated in the right part of the transept of the Basilica, whereas instead, according to the correct observation of Fr. Ferrua (op. cit., p. 154), they describe the spring discovered by the Damasan works. Later a confirmation of the works of Damasus and of his baptistery is found in the Gesta Liberii (PL 8, 1392 ff. and Lib. pont., ed. Duchesne, I, p. CCXXII). A. Silvagni (op. cit., no. 4100) attributes to the Vatican Baptistery a poem in which works carried out by the popes Boniface I and Celestine I (years 422-32) are recalled. Pope Symmachus added to the baptistery three oratories dedicated to the Holy Cross, to St. John the Baptist and to St. John the Evangelist, like those built at the Lateran by Pope Hilary, for the development of the rites of Christian initiation (Lib. Pont., I, pp. 261 and 266, nos. 20-22). These oratories, embellished by the same Pope, are recalled in the description of the basilica of the 8th century and later by P. Mallio and by T. Alfarano (G. B. De Rossi, Inscr. Christ., II, pp. 206, 227, 258).

VI. THE TOMBS OF THE POPES

As Duchesne rightly observes, when in the 6th century the biographies of the popes were written in the Liber pontificalis, it was believed that the first successors of Peter had been buried near the tomb of the Apostle; but by then they were certainly no longer visible, given the construction of the Constantinian basilica. In 1615 some believed that the sarcophagus of Linus had been discovered, because on the lid, together with other letters, a LINUS was found; the identification proved very implausible also because of the Latin wording, since, as is well known, all the most ancient sepulchral inscriptions of the popes from Anterus (236) to Gaius (296) are in Greek, with the exception of that of Cornelius (253). The Rev. Dr. Ruysschaert of the Vatican Library, at the meeting of 9 July 1953 of the Society of Students of Christian Archaeology, following the study of the biography of Anacletus in the Liber Pontificalis, in which the erection of a burial area for the bishops of Rome is attributed to this pope, proposed to recognize in the eleven tombs found in field P, with the exception of η, the sepulchres of the eleven successors of St. Peter indicated in the Liber Pontificalis as deposited in the Vatican, near the body of St. Peter. With Leo I a new series of popes deposited in St. Peter's began; after him, over five centuries, about seventy popes were buried there in various places. Indeed, Leo I himself was deposited outside the Basilica, near the Sacristy; for which reason in his sepulchral poem he is called ianitor arcis (A. Silvagni op. cit., no. 4148). There he remained for 227 years until 688, when Sergius I transferred him to the portico near the façade. Since the tomb had perhaps been profaned by the Saracens, Leo IV brought it inside, to the southern side of the transverse nave, near an exit door. Near his sepulchre Paschal II transported the remains of the popes Leo II, III and IV, which were then rediscovered in 1580 by Gregory XIII and removed by Paul V in 1607 and then again in 1715 placed beneath the present altar dedicated to Leo I, decorated with the relief by Alessandro Algardi (1602-54) representing the meeting between Attila and Leo I. Pope Simplicius (468-83) was deposited in the front portico of the Basilica, as were Gelasius (492-96), Anastasius II (496-98), whose metrical sepulchral inscription is known (ibid., no. 4149); Symmachus (498-514); Hormisdas (514-23), buried in the pavement of the portico (ibid., no. 4150) and whose sepulchral poem was likewise transcribed among the poems of Alcuin in the 9th century. In the portico was also the tomb of John I (523-26); his metrical inscription is known to us from a manuscript of the National Library of Paris (ibid., no. 4151); also of Felix IV (526-30) the text is known to us (ibid., no. 4152), as of his successor Boniface II (530-32), of whom a fragment of the marble is preserved in the Vatican Grottoes (ibid., no. 4153); of John II (533-35) the inscription is likewise known (ibid., no. 4154). Also in the portico was buried Agapetus (535-36). In front of the Sacristy were deposited Pelagius I (556-61), whose sepulchral poem the epigraphic collections handed down (ibid., no. 4155), John III (561-74) and Benedict I (575-79). In the portico beneath the pavement was the tomb of Pelagius II (579-90) and of Gregory I ([v.] 590-604), the "consul of God," whose marble eulogy recalls that he sent missionaries for the conversion of the Angles (ibid., no. 4156). His remains were later translated by Gregory IV (827-44), and this translation is represented in the Eton codex, already mentioned. Of Sabinian (604-606), buried in front of the Sacristy, besides the entire text preserved in the epigraphic collections, a fragment is preserved in the Vatican Grottoes (ibid., no. 4157). Of Boniface III (606-607) the text of the poem is likewise known (ibid., no. 4158), as also of Boniface IV (608-15); ibid., no. 4159), of Deusdedit (615-18); ibid., no. 4160), of Boniface V (619-25); ibid., no. 4161), of Honorius (625-38); ibid., no. 4162). Missing, on the other hand, are the poems of Severinus (640) and of John IV (640-42), deposited likewise in the portico, as was Theodore

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(642-49), of whom only the beginning of the poem is known; Eugenius I (654-57), Vitalian (637-72), Adeodatus (672-76), Donus (676-78), buried in the Vatican, whose inscriptions we do not know; on the other hand, that of Agatho (678-681; G. B. De Rossi, Inscr. christ., II, p. 52) is preserved; that of Leo II (682-83) is missing. The poems of Benedict II (684-85; G. B. De Rossi, op. cit., II, p. 129) and of John V (685-86; ibid.) are known; that of Conon is unknown. The burial of so many popes in the portico caused it to be given the name of portico of the pontiffs. But the tombs were so many that they stood leaning against one another. Thus Sergius I (687-701) wished to bring into prominence the tomb of Leo the Great, hidden in the midst of the others, as he says in the metrical inscription, and wished to expose it to public veneration (Lib. Pont., I, 375; G. B. De Rossi, op. cit., II, p. 56).

Perhaps Sergius I also removed the tombs of Simplicius, of Gelasius I and of Symmachus, because their existence is still mentioned in the 11th century.

Sergius I is remembered as buried in the portico in the Vatican (Lib. Pont., I, p. 376), as is John VI (701-705; ibid., I, p. ccxix). But John VII (705-707) wished to be laid in the basilica, near the sumptuous altar he had erected to the Virgin (G. B. De Rossi, I mutatici etc., Rome 1899, pl. 20). Of Sisinnius (708) and of Constantine (708-13) we do not know with certainty the location of their tombs in the Vatican. Gregory III (731-41) was buried to the right of the high altar, and only one verse of his sepulchral poem is known. Zachary (741-52) is indicated in the portico, but it is believed to be the inner one of the Basilica; the same must be said for Stephen II (752-57). Pope Paul I (757-67) was buried in the oratory of St. Mary called "si è grada" near the steps, in the atrium of the Basilica; an oratory that he had restored and adorned with mosaics. Stephen III (768-72) was also buried in the Vatican, but we do not know where. Adrian I ([VII] 772-95) was laid within the basilica, near the place where the body of Leo I had been transferred. His sepulchral slab, in black marble from the quarries of Sable (Tours), contains the poem that, it is believed, Charlemagne had written by Alcuin; today the slab is walled into the left wall of the atrium of the new basilica. Also within the Basilica was the tomb of Leo III (795-816); (G. B. De Rossi, Inscr. christ., II, Rome 1888, p. 201). In the 12th century Paschal II (1099-118) transferred his body together with those of Leo II and Leo IV to where the monument of Leo I was. Stephen IV (816-17) was buried, it seems, in front of the basilica, because so it is indicated in the 12th century. Of Stephen IV (816-17) no memory of his tomb, which was in the basilica, has been preserved. As for the tomb of his successor Paschal I (817-24), Duchesne holds that it was within the basilica, in one of the two chapels founded by him, either in that dedicated to the martyrs Processus and Martinian or the other of Sts. Sixtus and Fabian, that is, not far from the gate that led into the crypt (Lib. Pont., II, p. 68). There is no information concerning the burials of Eugene II (824-27), of Valentine (827) and of Gregory IV (827-44). The tomb of Sergius II (844-47) was placed near the altar of Sts. Sixtus and Fabian, and Peter Mallius in the 12th century handed down its sepulchral poem (G. B. De Rossi, op. cit., II, p. 213). The original tomb of Leo IV (847-55) is unknown; it was reunited in the 12th century by Pope Paschal II with that of Leo II. Benedict III (855-58) was buried near the main door of the basilica, as is mentioned in his sepulchral poem copied by Peter Mallius in the 12th century (ibid., II, p. 214). Nicholas I (858-67) was laid not far from his predecessor, near the gate called of Judgment or of the Dead (A. Silvagni, op. cit., pl. 2, 7). Adrian II ([v.] 867-72) near the Sacristy, and Peter Mallius has handed down its sepulchral poem; as has that of John VIII (872-82), buried nearby (G. B. De Rossi, op. cit., II, 216; A. Silvagni, op. cit., II, p. 8). Marinus (882-84) was buried in the portico, between the Porta Argentea and the Porta Romana; Peter Mallius, who copied its poem, holds that it was a pope by the name of John (G. B. De Rossi, op. cit., II, p. 215). In the portico was also the tomb of Stephen V (885-91), and the text is known from Peter Mallius (ibid., p. 214), come quello del papa Bonifacio VI (896), di cui il Mallio ha conservato un solo verso (ibid., p. 215); Stefano VI (896-97) venne deposto dinanzi alla basilica; il suo carme sepolcrale, copiato da P. Mallio, fu composto per ordine di Sergio III (ibid., p. 215). Giovanni IX (898-900) fu deposto dinanzi alla chiesa, presso la porta delle Guide e il testo ci è conservato da P. Mallio (ibid., p. 216); Benedetto IV (900-903) venne deposto presso l'udito che andava a S. Gregorio de Palatio (ibid., p. 217); Pietro Mallio ha conservato il testo dell'iscrizione, mentre di quella di papa Cristoforo (903-904) trascrisse un solo verso (ibid., p. 217). Sergio III (904-11) ebbe sepoltura tra la Porta Argentea e la Porta Romana e Mallio conservò il testo del carme (ibid., p. 212), come di quello del suo successore Anastasio III (911-13) senza indicare il luogo della sepoltura (ibid., p. 217). Poi si ha un intervallo perché i papi vennero depositi al Laterano. Giovanni XIV (983-84) fu sepolto nel portico presso la porta del Giudizio e vicino alla tomba di Giovanni VIII. P. Mallio ci fa conoscere il testo del suo carme (ibid., p. 216). Vicino al papa Pelagio I fu deposto Gregorio V ([v.], 997-98), con carme sepolcrale che si conserva quasi intatto nelle Grotte Vaticane (A. Silvagni, op. cit., tav. 4, 1). Il suo sepolcro fu aperto nel 1607; i resti furono deposti in un sarcofago cristiano venuto fuori durante i lavori di prolungamento della basilica, che fu trasportato nelle Grotte Vaticane, dove può vedersi. Leone IX (1048-54) fu sepolto vicino alla porta detta Ravenniana in un sarcofago marmoreo (G. B. De Rossi, op. cit., II, pp. 214, 220). Di lui si conoscono due iscrizioni sepolcrali, delle quali una inserita nella vita di Guiberto di Toul. Il suo sepolcro fu ritrovato nel 1606. Eugenio III (1145-53) fu deposto sopra la tomba di Gregorio III nell'oratorio della Vergine, da questi costruito nella Basilica Vaticana (v. iscrizione alla v. Gregorio III). Si conosce il testo del suo carme sepolcrale. Il suo successore Adriano IV (v.) volle esser deposto vicino (ibid., II, 201); per lui fu adoperato un grande sarcofago pagano in granito 1000 egiziano, con bucrani, festoni e Gorgoneion. Il sarcofago fu trasportato nel 1606 nelle Grotte Vaticane. Gregorio IX (1227-41) fu sepolto in Vaticano, come Celestino IV (1241), ma dei loro sepolcri non si ha traccia. Niccolò III (1277-1280) fu deposto nella cappella da lui stesso eretta nella parte settentrionale della basilica, ora nelle Grotte Vaticane, in un sarcofago cristiano, scoperto nel sec. XVI durante i lavori per la nuova basilica; appartiene alla fine del sec. IV e rappresenta la consegna della legge a S. Pietro. Onorio IV (1285-87) fu sepolto presso Niccolò III, ma quando sotto Paolo III venne distrutta questa parte della basilica antica, questi fece trasportare il sepolcro in S. Maria in Arzoceli sul Campidoglio, presso quelli dei genitori Luca Savelli e Vanna Aldobrandesca, utilizzando il sarcofago di questa e ponendovi per coperchio quello originario del Papa. Il monumento però fu, nel 1727, ridotto nello stato attuale. Bonifacio VIII (1294-1303) fu sepolto nella cappella da lui stesso fatta erigere da Arnolfo di Cambio, venuto espressamente a Roma e che costruì anche la tomba del Pontefice (riprod. al vol. II, tav. 109). La cappella fu demolita nel 1605 e allora, aperto il sepolcro, si riconobbe la figura imponente del Pontefice, con pallio, pianeta, mitra e anello con zaffiri. Il sarcofago fu trasportato nelle Grotte Vaticane, dove ora si conserva. Urbano VI (1378-89) fu sepolto a sinistra dell'abside. Per il suo sepolcro fu utilizzato un sarcofago romano del sec. III che sul fronte porta una scena nuziale; nella fronte opposta venne scolpito s. Pietro che consegna le chiavi a Urbano VI (v.). L'iscrizione metrica è nota solo da trascrizioni; l'originale è andato perduto, come il coperchio del sarcofago e le decorazioni. Perduta è anche ogni memoria della tomba di Bonifacio IX Tomacelli (1389-1404) che era a sinistra dell'abside, mentre di Innocenzo VII (1404-1406) il sepolcro, in origine nell'oratorio di S. Tommaso, oggi nelle Grotte Vaticane, contiene sul coperchio la lastra fatta eseguire dal papa Niccolò V. Eugenio IV (1431-47) venne deposto nella nave sinistra della basilica, presso l'arco trionfale. Rimosso il sepolcro nella costruzione della nuova basilica, fu trasportato nel chiostro della chiesa di S. Salvatore in Lauro, ma il carme sepolcrale è noto solo dalle copies. Of the grandiose sepulchral monument of Nicholas V (1447-55), which originally stood in the left nave near the door of the sacristy, only the sarcophagus with the sepulchral poem dictated by Pius II remains in the Vatican Grottoes (reproduced in vol. VIII, pl. 116). Callixtus III (1455-58) had a fine sepulchral monument in the old sacristy of St. Peter's, that is, in the first of the round mausoleums situated alongside the basilica. The monument, the work of Antonio da Binasco, was removed in 1586 for the transport of the obelisk; the remains of the Pope, placed inside the basilica behind the organs, remained there together with those of Alexander VI until 1605, when they were transported to the left nave in a new monument and in 1610 to S. Maria in Monserrato, the Spanish national church. Pius II (1458-64) was buried in the second left nave of the basilica, near the tabernacle of St. Andrew, which he had built. But the body was transported in 1623 to S. Andrea della Valle. The marble monument of Paul II (1464-71), the work of Giovanni Dalmata and Mino da Fiesole, was grandiose; it was originally situated near the door of the old sacristy, close to the present pier of St. Andrew; it was later transferred to the nave called del Sudario; but it was dismantled and dispersed; a large part of the pieces were brought to the Grottoes, then to the Museo Petriano, now again to the Grottoes (reproduced in vol. IX, pl. 54). Sixtus IV ([v.], 1471-84) had the most artistic monument of the old basilica in the bronze tomb of Antonio Pollaiuolo. It stood in the choir chapel built by Sixtus IV himself to the left of the last southern nave of the basilica. It changed position several times; now it is in the Vatican Grottoes. For Innocent VIII (1484-92) the same Pollaiuolo cast the monument, situated near the pier of the triumphal arch, close to the oratory of St. Lucy. Removed in 1507 for the construction of the piers of the dome, it was placed, modified from its original arrangement, on the second left pier of the new basilica in 1621, through the efforts of Prince Alberico Cibo Malaspina. Alexander VI (1492-1503) had burial in the round mausoleum near the Vatican Basilica, like Callixtus III, then in S. Maria in Monserrato. Pius III (1503) was buried in the left nave of the old basilica, near the Porta del Giudizio; he was transferred to S. Andrea della Valle in 1614. Julius II (1503-1513) was laid in the choir chapel of Sixtus IV; the tomb was profaned in the sack of Rome of 1527. The monument erected to him by Michelangelo is in S. Pietro in Vincoli. Leo X (1513-21) too was buried in St. Peter's near the ancient altar of St. Abbondio, but in 1544 he was transported to the church of the Minerva, where Clement VII (1534) was later translated as well. The popes buried in the new Basilica of St. Peter or in the Grottoes, from Paul III (1539) to Pius XI (1939), all have sumptuous monuments in the Basilica (cf. F. Gregorovius, Le tombe dei Papi, Italian version, 2nd ed. revised and enlarged by Ch. Hülsen, Rome 1931; G. Turcio, La Basilica di S. Pietro, ibid. 1946).

VII. THE CHRISTIAN CEMETERY

Since the Constantinian Basilica was a cemetery basilica, beneath its pavement it had a true cemetery, as did the other cemetery basilicas in catacumbas, those of St. Paul, St. Lawrence, and St. Agnes. This cemetery reappeared thanks to the work of lowering the level of the Vatican Grottoes, ordered by Pope Pius XII, immediately below the pavement of the Constantinian basilica. It is composed either of formae walled up and covered with tiles or of marble slabs arranged in two or more tiers covered by double-pitched tiles, or else of plain or sculpted sarcophagi, just as in the cemetery described by P. Styger beneath the basilica Apostolorum in catacumbas (Il monumento apostolico della Via Appia, in Dist. della Pont. accad. rom. di arch., 2nd series, 13 [1918], p. 9 ff.). Here too, in the sarcophagi, the corpses were wrapped in linens and bound with crossed bands, resting upon a light layer of quicklime; the same use of resinous balsamic essences has also been observed. A. Bosio, reproducing in his Roma sotterranea as many as 29 sarcophagi or their sculpted lids, declares that they "have survived from the ruins of the Vatican Cemetery (as relics of so great a shipwreck endured); besides those which at other times have been discovered in infinite number; and even today are still being discovered"; for some of them Bosio indicates with precision the years of their discovery (1575, 1590, 1592, 1607; Roma sotterranea,

Rome 1632, p. 105). To the west of the Apostle's tomb was found the sarcophagus of Junius Bassus (v.), prefect of Rome in 359; to the north of the tomb was found the inscription of Ebentius, consular advocate and governor of Vienne, loyal to Honorius against the usurper Constantine III, who died in Rome in 407 (Esplorazioni, cit., pp. 172, 192 and pl. 71; H. Marrou, L'épithaphe Vaticane du consulaire de Vienne Eventius, in Revue des études anciennes, 54 [1952], pp. 326-31). Of the sarcophagi found in Bosio's time during the works for the new Basilica, some are in the Christian Lateran Museum, some in the Louvre Museum in Paris; in the Vatican Grottoes are that of Junius Bassus, the former Lateran 174 (reproduced in vol. VI, pl. 18), and also those found in the recent explorations, such as the post-Constantinian sarcophagus with the busts of two spouses in the center and the two princes of the Apostles at the ends (Esplorazioni, cit., pp. 81, 84 and pl. 24 b, 27 b, 28); the sarcophagus placed against the mausoleum of the Ebuzii with scenes of Jonah and of the three youths on the lid, and on the chest the miracle of the spring, the announcement of the triple denial with the "signum Christi" (§) on the scroll held by Jesus Christ, Moses receiving the law, Daniel and the dragon, the healing of the man born blind, the orant between the two Apostles, the healing of the woman with the issue of blood, the sacrifice of Abraham, the arrest of St. Peter who holds the scroll with the same §; the resurrection of Lazarus (Esplorazioni, cit., p. 37, pl. 7); furthermore two sarcophagi with orants, one with the orant in a small apse and the two princes of the Apostles at the two ends. Finally the precious sarcophagus lid of Constantinian age with the sale of Joseph (v.) the Hebrew and the Epiphany with the Latin cross behind the Madonna (reproduced at the entry cross; cf. L. De Bruyne, Importante coperchio di sarcofago crist. scoperto nelle Grotte Vaticane, in Riv. arch. crist., 21 [1944-45], pp. 249-80), the sarcophagus of the Anicii, etc. The inscriptions, found both in Bosio's time and later, have been edited by A. Silvagni (Inscriptiones christianae, II, 2, Rome 1935). From them one can gain an idea of the various categories of persons who were buried there. In 380 there was buried "an Eustolius v(ir) c(larissimus)" (ibid., n. 4166); in 384 the praefectus urbi Valerius deposited there his wife, "clarissimae memoriae femina" (ibid., n. 4168); in 452 there was buried a "Fabiola c(larissima) f(emina)" (ibid., n. 4175); in one of the years 432, 437, 466 or 454 there was deposited there a "Paula in(ustris) femina" (ibid., n. 4176); a "Caecilia Furia c(larissima) f(emina)" who died on January 1, 414 (A. Ferrua, Lavori e scoperte, in Bull. comm. arch. Govern. di Roma, 1942, p. 96); in 444 or in 493 a "Mustila sp(ectabilis) f(emina)" (Silvagni, op. cit., n. 4178); in 511 an "Albina c(larissima) p(uella)" (ibid., n. 4182); in 516 a "Titianus v(ir) s(pectabilis)" (ibid., n. 4183); in 523 a "Petrus Romae ex tribunus voluptatum v(ir) sp(ectabilis) vicarius urbis" by concession of Pope Hormisdas and in the time of Trasmondo, provost of the basilica (ibid., n. 4184); furthermore there were buried a "Gabinia Gaudentia h(onesta) f(emina)" (ibid., n. 4208); a "Porfirius c(larissima) f(emina)" (ibid., n. 4208 A). "Ad sanctum Petrum Apostolum ante regia in porticu columna secunda, quomodo intramus sinistra parte virorum" received burial "Lucillus et Ianuaria h(onesta) f(emina)" (ibid., n. 4213); and again in the portico a senator was placed (ibid., n. 4234). In 536 there was deposited there a "Iohannis v(ir) h(onestus) olografus propine Isidori" (ibid., n. 4185); in 577 an "Eugenius notarius" (ibid., n. 4187), a "Iohannis Alicensis," that is, of Salemi (ibid., n. 4179); a "Helpis dicta fui Sicula regionis alumnae" (ibid., n. 4209), a "Mala requiescet in somno pacis" in 432, "accepta aput Deum" (ibid., n. 4173). A "Baleria Lutobia h(onesta) f(emina)" (ibid., n. 4226); an "Aelius Felicianus" made for himself his "domus eternalis" (ibid., n. 4229). In 435 there received burial an Aurelia Gemina, arranged by a deacon Felix (ibid., n. 4174); in 563 a "Marcellus subdiaconus regionis sexte" by concession of Pope John III (ibid., 4186); furthermore Eutichete, notary of the Roman Church, and a Peter, subdeacon "sancte ecclesiae romane regionis primae" (ibid., n. 4202). Christian burials were also lowered from the basilica into the mausoleums, for example, into that of the Matucci. There, on the back wall and on that

On the right side, three rows of tombs were laid out almost up to the height of the vault, along with three large cappuccina tombs, one of which was seen in 1822 when the statue of Pius VI was put in place (G. B. De Rossi, in Bull. arch. crist., 1st series, 2 [1864], p. 50, n. 4; cf. also Esplorazioni, cit., pp. 52-53). Ceadwalla, king of Wessex, who came to Rome and was baptized with the name Peter in 689 by Sergius I, and who died a few days later, was buried in the atrium of the basilica (G. B. De Rossi, Inscr. christ., II, 1, Rome 1888, p. 70, n. 4). Likewise in the atrium of St. Peter's (n. 165, F in T. Alfarano's plan, on the left) the emperor Otto II, who died on 7 December 983, was laid in a porphyry sarcophagus (C. M. Kaufmann, Das Kaisergrab. in den Vatikanischen Groten, Freiburg 1903; H. Grisar, Il sepolcro dell'Imperatore Ottone II nel paradiso dell'antica Basilica Vaticana, in Civ. Catt., 1904, 1, pp. 463-73). Cencius, prefect of Rome, was buried in the atrium of the basilica in 1077 (H. Grisar, La tomba del prefetto nel Paradiso di S. Pietro, in Civ. Catt., 1904, 1, pp. 202-203). At various times many tombs were found behind the present basilica on the hill, as far as the spot where the palace of the Governatorato now stands; regarding an inscription of 352 (Silvagni, op. cit., n. 4201), G. B. De Rossi attests that it was found « ex uno subdialium sepulcorum quorum quidem multa vestigia vidi » (Inscr. christ., Rome 1857-61, n. 112); from the same place comes the fine dogmatic epitaph of the year 403 of a « Quintilianus homo Dei, confirmans Trinitatem, amans castitatem, reapsens mundum » (Silvagni, op. cit., n. 4202); the famous cippus found in 1841-42 which documents the open-air cemetery of Licinia with ΙΧΘΥΣ ΖΩΝΤΩΝ (fish of the living) and the anchor between two fish, now in the Museo nazionale romano (IV. PESCE), A. Marchi, Architettura delle arti primitive, Rome 1844, p. 70; Silvagni, op. cit., n. 4246); the lid of the sarcophagus of Agapene found in 1843 (ibid., n. 4245); coming from a « forma », the large slab of a Tertulla found in 1845, now in the Lateran (wall XXII, 10; ibid., n. 4249); the fragment of a sarcophagus lid of an EPISC (opus), also in the Lateran (O. Marucchi, Monumenti del Museo Lateranense, Milan 1910, pl. 53; Fr. J. Dölger, Τχθύς, I, p. 159; II, p. 573, pl. 48, 2; Silvagni, op. cit., n. 4246); the inscription found in 1841-42 of an Ursa with the orant, now in the Lateran (O. Marucchi, op. cit., pl. 65, 9; Silvagni, n. 4251) and other inscriptions found in 1842-45 (O. Marucchi, op. cit., pl. 65, 5, 65, 6; Silvagni, op. cit., n. 4252-55). Finally, in 1950, in the foundations of the new building for Vatican Radio, a cappuccina « forma » appeared, attesting how far the Christian cemetery area extended into the hill. In the Roman burial ground near Porta Angelica a Christian sarcophagus with scenes of Jonah was also discovered, today in the Ny Carlsberg Glyptotek in Copenhagen (Wilpert, Sarcofagi, pp. 85, 90, pl. 59, 3).

VIII. ENDOWMENTS, ADMINISTRATION, OFFICIATION

In the biography of Sylvester there is given the list of properties assigned by Constantine for the maintenance of the Basilica. It was certainly taken from the Archive of the Church (Lib. pont., I, pp. 177-78). A. Pignani has pointed out that the possessions situated in the East must have been granted by Constantine after the victory over Licinius and the unification of the Empire. One of the most precious documents for the rights of the Vatican Basilica over its inalienable domains "nullo nomine nec titulo" is the one sent by the three emperors Gratian, Valentinian and Theodosius to Flavius Eleutherius "urbi praefecto" in one of the years 372, 379, 382 or 383. A copy of it is preserved on a marble slab brought to light in the pavement of the chapel of Pope John VII (Silvagni, op. cit., no. 4099). A copy of another constitutum of Athalaric from the time of John III (533-35) was found in front of the atrium of the basilica (Cassiodorus, Variarum, IX, 15; Silvagni, op. cit., no. 4116 a).

The care of the basilica was entrusted to a provost, who had to administer its properties and see to the revenues necessary for the maintenance of the building, for its lighting and for worship. The sepulchral inscription of a provost by the name of Transmundus from the year 523 is known (G. B. De Rossi, Inscr. christ., I, no. 989). Under his authority were the mansionarii, two of whom, Theodore and Aconcius, are praised by St. Gregory the Great (Dialog., III, 23, 25).

This Pope also uses the term custos and that of custodes martyrum; in the biographies of Sylvester and of Leo the Great they are also called "cubicularii ex clero romano" (Lib. pont., I, pp. 171 and 239). They increased in number with the passage of time and in the 10th century there were sixty of them, and they divided among themselves the various chapels of the basilica, forming as many scholae. Among these the most important was the schola confessionis. Known are the scholae of St. Mary in Beronica with the oratory of John VII in 1018; of the oratory of Paul I, of St. Petronilla, of St. Cross (L. Schiaparelli, Le carte antiche dell'archiv. cap. di S. Pietro, cited below, nos. 8, 11, 14, 15), of St. Mary in Mediana, that is, of the oratory of Gregory III (L. Allodi-G. Levi, Regestum Sublacense, Rome 1885, p. 138). But on account of abuses Gregory VII abolished them (Lib. pont., II, p. 271). In the time of Gregory III, in 732, there were seven of them, and the Pope entrusted to them the care of the lighting of the oratory founded by him near the triumphal arch to the left of the confession, in honor of the Most Holy Savior and of the Blessed Virgin (no. 38 of the plan of T. Alfarano). The Pope held a synod in which the prayers were also fixed, now on four marble tablets still seen by Maffeo Vegio "in utroque latere Sanctae Mariae in Cancelli"; the surviving fragments are now in the Holy Grottoes (Silvagni, in Monumenta epigraphica cristiana, I, Vatican City 1938, pl. 13). A marble slab also in the Grottoes has preserved a copy of three prayers for the soul of Pope Gregory III, who died on 28 Nov. 741. Recently L. Eizenhofer has published an exhaustive study of the text from the liturgical point of view (Die Marmormessen Gregor III, in Ephemerides Liturgicae, 67 [1953], pp. 112-28). Pope Leo IX established that a tenth of the offerings be devoted to the maintenance of the basilica (L. Schiaparelli, op. cit., no. 19). In the 11th century, to the bishop of Silva Candida for his officiation in the basilica during Holy Week there went the oblations of the faithful during his functions (ibid., no. 19). In 1138 Innocent II granted to the canons half of the oblations left at the oratories of St. Mary "in turre", of St. Gregory, of St. John and of St. Petronilla (Jaffé-Wattenbach, 4076, 4110, 4366). Eugene III left to the canons a fourth part of all the offerings, with the exception of those of the chapel of St. Leo the Great (L. Fabre, Les offrandes dans la basilique Vaticane, in Mélanges d'arch. et d'hist., 14 [1894], p. 225; L. Schiaparelli, Le carte antiche dell'archivio capitolare di S. Pietro in Vaticano, in Archivio della Soc. rom. di storia patria, 24 [1901], pp. 393-406; 25 [1902], pp. 273-353).

The papal officiation took place from the 4th century onward on 22 Feb.: "Natale Petri de Cathedra", on 29 June, the natale of the two apostles Peter and Paul, and on 25 Dec. in Natale Domini. Pope Simplicius (468-83) assigned to the titular priests of the VI ecclesiastical region (Campus Martius, that is, of Lucina or Cecilia, Mark and Damasus) and to those of the VII (Trastevere, that is, Julius, Chrysogonus, Callistus) the task of performing weekly service "propter penitentes et baptismum" (Lib. pont., I, p. 249). L. Duchesne held that the regular celebration of Holy Mass in the two cemetery basilicas of the Vatican and of the Ostian Way was instituted by St. Gregory (Lib. pont., I, p. 312; id. Vaticana XII, in Mél. d'arch. et d'hist., 34 [1915], p. 213). In the time of Paschal I (817-24), for the feast of the Apostle the nocturna diligentia was carried out with the washing of the confession and the placing of a censer in the little well immediately above the tomb (Lib. pont., II, p. 33). M. Andrieu, publishing the text of an "ordo qualiter diligentia agitur Romae in ecclesia sancti Petri", held the archetype of such an ordo to be much earlier than the 9th century (La cérémonie appellée diligentia au début du IXᵉ siècle, in Revue des sciences religieuses, 1921, pp. 62-63). In the 12th century the papal liturgical stations were those of the Saturdays of the Ember Days, of the Sundays of Quinquagesima and of the Passion, the Monday after Easter, the second Sunday after Easter, 25 Apr. for the Litania maior, the day of the dedication 18 Nov. and 22 Feb. In the 12th century night stations were held: on the Sunday Gaudete (third of Advent), Epiphany, Ascension, Pentecost, 29 June and its octave (6 July).

IX. BASILICA OF ST. VINCENT

In the description of the basilica of the 8th century, the bed on which St. Gregory died is indicated in this place (G. B. De Rossi, Inser. christ., II, p. 227); at the end of the 9th century, in the biography of Stephen V (Lib. pont., II, p. 196), there is mention of an oratory of St. Gregory with eleven altars where his bed is preserved. Only in the 12th century is there found the mention of the basilica of St. Vincent (deacon and martyr), which P. Mallio indicates near the north side of the portico of St. Peter (a. a. in the plan of T. Alfarano). It is remembered among the churches of the Borgo by Cencio Camerario; oriented like the Vatican Basilica: with three naves divided by two rows of nine marble columns 4.40 m high; on the walls there were traces of ancient paintings perhaps representing episodes from the life of St. Vincent, but ruined by damp (A. Severano, Memorie delle Sette chiese, Rome 1653, p. 67; F. Martinelli, Roma ex ethnica sacra, ibid. 1630, p. 353). It had a Chapter of which Benedict XI in 1304 named Cardinal Matteo Orsini administrator (Bull. Vat., t. III, app., p. 6). Pope Nicholas V, with a bull of 23 Dec. 1549, suppressed the Chapter, devolving its revenues to the canons of St. Peter (Bullarium Vat., II, p. 130). The church was reduced to a wine storehouse, then Paul III divided it into two floors; the upper one was destined for the tributes and quitrents received by the Apostolic Camera on the day of St. Peter; the walls were frescoed with paintings representing the tributary princes of the Roman Church and with an inscription. Paul V had it demolished in 1611 and the columns were reused in the chapels erected in the extension by Maderno.

X. BUILDINGS AROUND ST. PETER'S

Soon dwellings ("accubita") arose around the Vatican Basilica, above a kind of portico ("tignum"). Pope Symmachus (498-514) had two "episcopia" built to the right and left of the basilica, and on the left dwellings for the poor (Lib. pont., I, pp. 262-63), which were restored by the popes Sergius (687-701; ibid., I, p. 375), Gregory III (ibid., I, p. 420) and by Leo III (ibid., II, p. 27).

In the biography of Leo III, mention is made of a triclinium maiore built by him "iuxta ecclesiam beati Petri," magnificently decorated and with the larger apse covered in mosaics, while the two smaller ones shone with marbles and paintings. This building is referred to as "in Acoli" (Lib. pont., II, p. 8); a term that recurs in the life of Gregory IV, who "iuxta Acoli" had a small hospice built, well decorated with paintings "pro quietitudine pontificis," that is, for the pope's rest after the matutinal functions or after solemn Masses (ibid., II, p. 143). In the building of Leo III, the emperor Louis II and his retinue were received by Leo IV (ibid., II, p. 134). Maffeo Vegio still saw in his own time the vestiges of the two smaller apses, while the larger one still existed. L. Duchesne identified the "domus Acoli" with the term "domus Aguliae" used in the Liber Censum (ed. Fabre-Duchesne, I, p. 269) to designate the building where the Pope with his court came from the Lateran to lodge for the solemn functions of the vigil at St. Peter's (ibid., II, p. 143). Near the basilica, to the south, a bath was built for pilgrims, where at the time of the diaconiae the poor were led every Thursday. The Lombards cut in 756 the aqueduct "forma Sabbatina," which was repaired by Adrian I (Lib. pont., I, pp. 503, 506). Duchesne holds that the "palatium S. Petri," where in the 9th century the imperial "missus" resided, stood on the site of the diaconia of St. Sergius, or rather was nothing but the transformation of the diaconia itself (Lib. pont., II, p. 43); it would be the "S. Sergius palatii Caruli" of the list of Cencio (C. Hülsen, Le chiese di Roma, p. 11, n. 63).

XI. THE FILIAL CHURCHES

The filial churches of St. Peter in the 11th-12th centuries were: Sts. John and Paul, St. Martin, St. Stephen Major, St. Stephen Minor, St. Saviour in Terrione, St. Justin on the mons Saccorum, St. Peregrine outside the Leonine city, St. Mary in Palatiolo, St. Mary in Caterina, St. Mary in Turri (L. Schiaparelli, art. cit., in Arch. della Soc. rom. di St. Patria, 24 [1901], p. 477, n. 18; 25 [1902], p. 279, n. 37; p. 296 n. 471, p. 331, n. 70; P. Fr. Kehr, Italia Pontificia, I Berlin 1906, pp. 139, 141-43).

The filial churches in the 14th century were: St. James in Septignano, St. Leonard, St. Mary in Saxia, St. Mary in Palatiolo, St. Mary and Caterina, St. Mary in Traspadina,

St. Michael, St. Lawrence de Piscibus, St. Martinello, St. Mary de Virgariis, St. Gregory de Cortina, St. Stephen de Ungaris, St. Saviour de Ossibus, St. Zeno (Fr. Ehrle, Richerche, etc., in Dissert. della P. Accad. rom. di arch., 2nd series, X [1907], p. 40). St. Mary de Palatiolo, situated on the spur of the Janiculum that juts out toward St. Peter, that is, where today stands the convent of the Augustinians of St. Monica, is still mentioned in the catalogues of the churches of Rome, of Paris, of Turin and of Signorili; then it disappears. G. Grimaldi indicates it as destroyed when the villa Cesi or Vercelli was built (L. Schiaparelli, in Arch. soc. rom. st. patria, 25 [1903], p. 310). St. Gregory de Cortina was between the present obelisk and the western end of the Berninian portico on the south side; it is mentioned in the bull of Innocent III of 13 Oct. 1205 and of Gregory IX of 1228. St. Mary de Vergariis or Virgariis: at the beginning of the portico of St. Peter near the place where the obelisk now stands, it is mentioned in the bull of Leo IX of 20 March 1053 (F. P. Kehr, Italia pontif., I, p. 146, n. 4); it was a filial church of St. Peter from the bull of Adrian IV of 10 Feb. 1058 (ibid., p. 542, n. 42). The name "virgarii" derives from the silver rods that were the insignia of the singers attached to St. Peter (P. Adinolfi, La portica di S. Pietro, pp. 126 ff.). The church of St. Mary de Armenis was in the borgo of St. Peter, on the eastern side of the palace of the Holy Office in the island that already existed between this and the Augustinian College of St. Monica, to the south-east of the Vatican Basilica (Fr. Ehrle, op. cit., p. 32 ff.; Ch. Hülsen, Le Chiese di Roma nel medioevo, p. 313). St. Zeno was subject to the monastery of St. Martin by the bulls of Leo IV of 10 Aug. 854 (L. Schiaparelli, op. cit., p. 432, n. 2) and of Leo IX of 31 March 1053 (op. cit., p. 467, n. 16). It was very close to St. Saviour in Terrione where the Holy Office now is, and it was demolished by Card. Pucci for his Palazzo between 1513-31 (Fr. Ehrle, op. cit., p. 35).

Four were the oratories instituted under the four porticoes that surrounded the garden or paradise of the basilica. On the left St. Mary in turri, on the right in the corner St. Apollinaris; in front of the old sacristy St. Mary called della Febbre, where previously was the oratory of St. Gregory near the tomb of this pope; St. Mary in Turri or in turribus was at the entrance of the "paradise" of St. Peter, between the two bell towers erected by Stephen II and Adrian II; it is mentioned for the first time in the bull of John XIX of Dec. 1026 (P. F. Kehr, Italia Pontificia, I, p. 139, n. 18; II, p. 26, n. 3); it was among the filial churches of St. Peter (bull of Innocent II of 23 May 1138); it appears for the last time in the bull of Innocent VI of 1355 (Bullarium Vaticanum, I, pp. 356); Alfarano in his plan marks its place at n. 141. St. Apollinaris: it was founded by Honorius (625-38) and enriched by him with gifts (Lib. Pont., I, p. 323). It was on the left side of the Basilica. It was demolished during the works for the new façade (J. A. F. Orbaan, Der Abbruch Alt-St. Peters 1605-15, in Jahrbuch der k. preuss. Kunstsammlungen, 39 [1919], Supplem., pp. 86-87, 105).

XII. THE MONASTERIES

Monasteries soon arose around the Basilica to serve it. The oldest of them is mentioned in the biography of Leo I (440-61) in the Lib. pont. (I, p. 239); and an ancient interpolation gives us its name: that of Sts. John and Paul. It is still mentioned in the Turin catalogues of the churches of Rome and in the Signorili catalogue from the time of Martin V, but no longer by Maffeo Vegio. When the north side of the transept was built, its remains were seen, with mosaic representations of the two martyrs John and Paul. It is not known who founded the monastery of St. Martin; from here, in the time of Pope Agatho, the "archicantor" of St. Peter, John, set out for England to instruct the monks of Benedict Biscop in the Roman psalmody (Lib. pont., I, p. 417; Bede: PL 94, 717). On 10 August 854 Leo IV restored its buildings and granted to the monastery the churches of the four scholae and St. Zeno (L. Schiaparelli, op. cit., n. 2; it is a copy of the 12th century); on 21 March 1053 Leo IX confirmed its privileges (ibid., n. 16). In the Middle Ages the monastery served for the consecration of bishops and for the ceremony of the washing of the feet on Maundy Thursday. Maffeo Vegio saw it demolished under Nicholas V; still visible at that time was a chapel with some cells, between the curve of the Constantinian apse and the western wall of the transept, where today stands the pillar known as that of the Veronica. It is known that there was a door in the outer wall of the Basilica near the chapel of St. Leo. There, around the middle of the 15th century, the bronze statue of St. Peter was kept, which was transported under Paul V to the right of the central nave of the Basilica (H. Grisar, Della statua in bronzo di s. Pietro apostolo nella Basilica Vaticana, in Analecta Romana, I, Rome 1899, p. 631 ff.). At the end of the 4th century Galla, a noblewoman of the Roman aristocracy, daughter of the consul Symmachus, lived in a monastery of St. Stephen near St. Peter's, which in the 8th and 9th centuries was often called "cata Galla patricia". That monastery, called that of St. Stephen the Greater, later passed to monks, because in 732 Pope Gregory III established a rule for the three monasteries "illic servientes" (Lib. Pont., I, pp. 417, 422). It was endowed by Paschal I (Jaffé-Wattenbach, 4293). Its church was restored in the time of Leo III; the monastery was dilapidated in the 15th century, when Maffeo Vegio lived there; afterwards Abyssinian religious dwelt there, whence the title of St. Stephen of the Moors; the church was again restored by Clement XI in 1706 and by Pius XI (G. Giovannoni, La chiesa vaticana di S. Stefano Maggiore, in Memorie della Pont. Accad. rom. di arch., 4 [1934]). Pope Stephen III (752-57) added a fourth monastery, called that of St. Stephen the Lesser (Lib. Pont., I, p. 451). The church in the time of St. Pius V had taken the name of "St. Stephen the Lesser of the Hungarian nation". It was demolished for the construction of the new Sacristy; a plaque marks its site. Later, struggles arose among the monasteries, which were reorganized and restored by Adrian I and by Leo III (Lib. Pont., I, p. 501; II, p. 28). The monastery of St. Martin was entrusted to the Roman presbyter Paschal, later pope (817-24; Lib. Pont., II, pp. 52, 59); there Leo IV (847-55) was later educated, and he restored and endowed it (ibid., II, p. 133). The monastery held the three scholae of the Franks, the Frisians and the Saxons with the churches of St. Saviour, St. Michael and St. Mary and adjoining buildings, among which were the churches of St. Zeno, St. Nicholas, St. Mary de Palatiolo, and St. Saviour de Bordonia. To the monastery of St. Stephen the Greater belonged in the 15th century the church and hospital of St. Pellegrino and lands between the Valley of Hell and the walls of Leo IV; the church of St. Mary in Turri near the atrium of the Vatican Basilica and that of St. Justin to the north of the portico with the schola of the Lombards and its cemetery. In the 10th century, however, monks are no longer found there. Leo IX appointed a single archpriest to whom he subjected them all (Jaffé-Wattenbach, 4292-94). Known in 1083 is Cardinal Bonussenior (Schiaparelli, op. cit., n. 102). Under Paschal II, in an act of 1104, mention is made of the archpriest of St. Peter assisted by the four rectors of the monasteries, who are still encountered in acts of Clement III (P. Fr. Kehr, Italia Pontif., I, Berlin 1906, p. 146). Little by little, however, the monasteries were abandoned, and nearby the Canonica was built, erected by Nicholas III (1277-80) on the south side of the basilica, near the present one (it is in Alfarano's plan, pl. 2, ed. Cerrati); then in the 15th century the canons dispersed into the city (L. Duchesne, V., in Mél. d'arch. et d'hist., 34 [1914], p. 323).

XIII. DEACONRIES

Around the Vatican Basilica there were five deaconries: the first, that of Sts. Sergius and Bacchus, seems to predate Gregory III (731-41; Lib. pont., I, p. 420). In 1192 it was called S. Sergio "de palatio Caruli," that is, the building inhabited by the Carolingians on their coming to Rome; it must have been demolished in the 13th century because it does not appear in the catalogues of the churches of Rome. It was situated on the north side of the basilica.

The second deaconry is that of S. Maria in Caput Portici, mentioned in the biography of Pope Stephen II (752-57; Lib. pont., I, p. 441), where he established a xenodochium; it is also mentioned in the biographies of Adrian I (ibid., I, p. 506) and of Leo III (ibid., II, p. 10); in the privilege of Leo IV of 10 Aug. 854 for the monastery of S. Martino it is indicated as "S. Maria in oratorio quae est in capo de portico" (L. Schiaparelli, in Arch. soc. rom. st. patria, 24 [1901], p. 432, n. 2; P. Fr. Kehr, Italia Pontificia, I, Berlin 1906, p. 145, n. 1); it was also called "S. Maria Virgariorum in fine cortinae"; it was ab-

demolished by Pius IV to enlarge the square; it stood approximately where the obelisk now rises (T. Alfarano, ed. M. Cerrati, cit. [Studi e testi. 26], Rome 1914, p. 23).

The third deaconry is that of St. Sylvester "iuxta hospitale S. Gregorii," mentioned in the biographies of Stephen II (Lib. pont., I, pp. 441, 456); it is connected with the xenodochium called that of St. Gregory in the life of Adrian I (ibid., I, p. 506); it received gifts from Leo III (ibid., II, p. 22). It must have been near S. Maria "in caput portici"; it too was demolished under Pius IV.

The fourth deaconry, called "In Hadrianum," that is, near the mausoleum of Hadrian, not far from the bridge, in the 9th century was named that of S. Maria Trappontina and in Traspadina, and it lasted until the 15th century. L. Duchesne held that the term derived from a confraternity of persons who had come from beyond the Po. The church was demolished under Pius IV. The present S. Maria in Trappontina rises farther to the west.

The fifth deaconry is that of St. Martin near the two of "S. Maria in caput portici" and of St. Sylvester; and it was called de curtina, iuxta porticum, de portico in the ancient catalogues of the churches of Rome; "S. Martinelli de portico" in a bull of Boniface IX of 6 April 1400; that of St. Martin in the palace of the prior of Rome because it had become the oratory of the priory of the knights of St. John; it disappeared in the 17th century.

XIV. THE "SCHOLAE PEREGRINORUM." - Around the Basilica there arose special hospices or scholae where pilgrims also found spiritual assistance with clergy of their own nation. The first mention of them is in the biography of Pope Sergius II, when on 23 Aug. 846 the Romans sent against the Saracens, at Porto, "Saxi et Frisones et schola qui dicitur Francorum" (Lib. pont., II, p. 100). Leo III, on his return to Rome on 29 Nov. 799, was received at the Milvian Bridge by the clergy, the Roman people and all the "scholae peregrinorum, videlicet Francorum, Frisonorum, Saxonorum atque Langobardorum" (Lib. Pont., II, p. 6).

The oldest of these scholae is the "schola Saxonum," that is, the hospice of the Saxons, founded by King Ine of Wessex, according to Matthew of Paris, ca. 727-30; while William of Malmesbury attributes it to Offa king of Mercia ca. 794 (Gesta regum Anglorum, ed. W. Stubbs, I, London 1883, p. 109). From the area of the Neronian circus as far as the Tiber the whole district took the name of "Vicus Saxonum." Even the appellation of Borgo (Borgo S. Spirito, S. Angelo, Vecchio, Nuovo) derives from the English "bourg." Under Paschal I the burgus Saxonum was devastated by a fire (Lib. pont., II, p. 53) and later under Leo IV. The center of the Schola Francorum was the church of St. Saviour later called de Terrione, super Terrionem or iuxta Terriones, recalled in the bulls of Leo IX of 21 March 1053, of Adrian IV of 10 Feb. 1158 and of Urban III of 13 June 1186. It was restored by Nicholas V; it was partly demolished by the construction of the palace of the Holy Office. The schola Francorum divided into two: the Germanic branch, with S. Maria dell'Anima and the Campo Santo of the Germans and Flemings, 14th century; the French branch in S. Luigi de' Francesi (P. La Croix, Mémoire historique sur les donations de France à Rome, Paris 1868). Innocent VIII (1484-92) assigned the site of the ancient schola to a corps of bodyguards called cavalleggeri or broken lances, milites levis armaturae, until the Napoleonic occupation; now the oratory of St. Peter. The foundation of the Schola Langobardorum is attributed to Ansa, wife of King Desiderius, before 774; indeed there is an allusion to it in her epitaph dictated by Paul the Deacon (MGH, Scriptores rerum Langobard., p. 192). Cardinal Ehrle identified the place where the church of St. Justin stood, the center of the schola. In a document one reads that Charlemagne, on 22 Dec. 797, would have established that the church of St. Saviour be a hospice of pilgrims from beyond the mountains and a burial place for those who died in Rome; but it is a forgery of the 11th century (cf. L. Schiaparelli, art. cit., 24 [1901], pp. 426-32). Of the Schola Frisonum there survives the church today called that of Sts. Michael and Magnus, on high, on the left of Bernini's colonnade. In that church there are still the fragments of the epitaph of a certain "Hebi genere Frisonorum" from the time of Pope John XVIII (1001-1009). The church was granted on 4 Jan. 1447 to Bartolomeo Roverella archbishop of Ravenna who had restored it. To these four scholae, which declined after the Saracen invasion, there was added later that of the Hungarians founded at the beginning of the 11th century by King St. Stephen near St. Stephen the Less, also called de Agulia. The bull of Benedict X of 8 May 1058 established that Hungarians arriving in Rome "causa orationis aut legationis" were to lodge only near St. Stephen the Less and that the goods of Hungarians who died in Rome were to be devolved to the hospice (A. De Waal, La schola Francorum e l'ospizio Teutonicum al campo Santo, Rome 1897; id., Der Campo Santo der Deutschen zu Rom, Freiburg im Br. 1896; J. Zettinger, Die Berichte über Rompilger aus dem Frankenreich bis zum Jahr 800, in Röm. Quartalschrift, Suppl., 11, Rome 1900; P. J. Block, Le antiche memorie dei Frisoni in Roma, in Bull. della Commissione archeol. comunale, 34 [1906], pp. 40-60; P. M. Baumgarten, Cartularium vetus Campi Santi Teutonicorum de Urbe, Rome 1908; W. Kroke, The national establishments of England in Medieval Rome, in Dublin Review, 23 [1918], pp. 94-106, 305-17; M. Vaes, Les fondations hospitalières flamandes à Rome du XVe au XVIIIe siècle, in Bulletin historique belge à Rome, 1 [1919], pp. 170-371; A. Gasquet, The history of the venerable English College at Rome, London 1920; Fr. Ehrle, L'oratorio di S. Pietro nel sito dell'antica scuola dei Franchi, Rome 1924; W. J. Moore, The Saxon pilgrims to Rome and the Schola Saxon, Freiburg im Sw. 1939; G. J. Hoogewerff, Friezen, Franken en Saksen te Rome, in Mededeelingen van het Nederlandsch Historisch Institute te Rome, 15 [1947], p. 13 ff.; F. Banfi, Santo Stefano degli Ungari. La chiesa e l'ospizio della nazione ungherese a Roma, in Capitolium, 27 [1952], pp. 27-39).

XV. HOSPITAL AND HOSPICES

St. Pellegrino: in the time of Leo III (795-816) there was the hospitale dominicum ad Naumachiam "with an oratory dedicated to St. Pellegrino, first bishop of Auxerre; the said Pope rebuilt the hospital and the oratory, dedicating it to St. Peter" (Lib. Pont., II, pp. 25, 28). Paschal I (817-24) reorganized everything and entrusted the administration to the monks whom he installed at St. Cecilia in Trastevere (ibid., II, p. 57). The church remained outside the Leonine city on the road that led to the Porta Aurea or Viridaria, near the Swiss Barracks (Fr. Ehrle, Ricerche su alcune antiche chiese del Borgo di S. Pietro, in Dissert. della Pont. accad. rom. di archeol., 2nd series, X, 1 [1907], p. 22 ff.). Eugene IV, with a bull of the year 1446, adapted some old buildings between the Campo Santo and the obelisk as a women's hospital; others were used by Nicholas V for the distributions of the apostolic almsgiving. The xenobohium of Stephen II (752-57), which later became the hospital of St. Gregory, was located near the deaconry of St. Silvester and the present obelisk, to the left of one looking at the basilica. It was destroyed under Pius IV (T. Alfarano, cit., ed. Cerrati, p. 23).

XVI. THE LEONINE CITY

As early as 846 the emperor Lothair, immediately after the Saracen invasion, in which "ecclesia beati Petri hoc anno a paganis vastata est et direpta," had given orders "ut murus firmissimus circa aecclesiam beati Petri construatur" (MGH, Capitol., II, p. 66). Duchesne held that the death of Pope Sergius II delayed its execution and that Leo IV insisted with the Emperor, while the first idea is assigned to Leo III (Lib. pont., II, pp. 123, and 137, n. 46). The work of erecting the walls was carried out with laborers supplied by the individual neighboring cities, by the monasteries and by the "domus cultae" (v.). Two inscriptions document the work done by the "militiae Capracorum" of the domus culta of the same name (Lib. pont., I, p. 518, n. 52) and by the "militia Saltisina" (ibid., II, p. 137, n. 47). They are set into the walls of the corridor of Borgo, on the outer face of the arch beneath which the Via di Porta Angelica passes. But Saracen prisoners too were employed in this construction (ibid., II, p. 119), begun in 848 and finished in 852; however, the three inscriptions placed on the walls themselves are earlier than 6 April 850, the date of Lothair's death; indeed they do not mention his successor Louis II. The Lib. pont. gives the description of the solemn ceremony that took place on 27 June 852, with which the same Pontiff inaugurated the new enclosure with a procession and recited three prayers upon the new walls; the texts of the three prayers are inserted in his biography (Lib. Pont., II, p. 124). The walls had a length of two and a half miles and were furnished with 48 towers. The most intact part is in the Vatican gardens with the tower of the Vatican observatory, which, like the one near the Casino of Pius IV, was often called the Torrione di S. Leone; the tower of the observatory has a diameter of 16 m. and walls of 4.50 m. at the base (today included in the complex of the radio station); the other, called the Leonine Tower, measures 12.80 m. in diameter and of equal thickness; the wall continues with a west-east orientation. The corridor of Borgo is much restored and modified. Above each of the three gates an inscription was placed; the text of the first two was transmitted by the sylloge, assigned by A. Silvagni to Poggio Bracciolini and dated to 1409 (Inscr. chr. urb. Rom., new series, I, 1922, pp. xxx-xxxi). The third epigraph was transcribed by Maffeo Vegio (G. B. De Rossi, Inscr. christ., Rome 1888, p. 347).

Recently two marble fragments came to light which, joined, give the extreme right side of an epigraph that was at least 15 lines long; it alludes to the work of Leo ("estructa Leonis"); to Rome ("[R]oma tibi tulerat"), to the blood of the Martyrs ("[marty]rum sanguine cretus"). A. Prandi has held that these may be the remains of the epigraph placed at the posterula Saxonum (A. Prandi, Un'iscrizione frammentaria di Leone IV recentemente scoperta, in Archivio della Soc. rom. di Storia patria, 74 [1941], pp. 149-59).

XVII. THE NEW BASILICA

The name of Nicholas V (1447-55) is linked to the project for the construction of the new basilica, because the ancient one had been reduced to a truly ruinous state; the building was leaning dangerously. Leon Battista Alberti wrote that the southern wall projected outward by 3 braccia (about 1.75 m). Further confirmation comes from the testimony of Grimaldi, who was present in the final moments of the old basilica and was a witness to the demolition of the eastern part; he calculated that the walls of the central nave on the south side had an inclination of 5 palmi, that is, 1.11 m, adding that the paintings that decorated them were no longer visible because of the dust that covered them. Nicholas V in 1452 entrusted Bernardo Rossellino with the task of building more to the west a new and grander apse. But when the pope died the new walls had reached a height of only two meters. In 1452, while excavating the foundations, the mausoleum of the Anicii came to light again; the sumptuous sarcophagus of Anicius Probus was found, which then served for some time as a baptistery, and has now returned beneath St. Peter's in the Grottoes; the scholar Maffeo Vegio copied the mosaic inscription placed on Anicius by his wife Faltonia Proba, and others (A. Silvagni, op. cit., 4219-22); the mausoleum was like a small basilica with three naves, but everything was destroyed; however, from the violated tombs so much gold was recovered that the Pope was able to make a chalice from it and give rich gifts to the workers who had found it and handed it over. The mausoleum proved to have been built above a pagan tomb full of ollae (small urns) containing burnt bones. Paul II in 1470 had the work continued, entrusting it to the architect Giuliano da Sangallo; but the work proceeded with extreme slowness. Sixtus IV had a new ciborium erected in 1479, using the four porphyry columns existing there, which are either the same ones from the time of Honorius III or rather those of the raised altar of Callistus II. Of these four columns, later removed by Bernini, in the time of Urban VIII, two are found today at the altar of Sts. Simon and Jude and two at that of the martyrs Processus and Martinian. The tabernacle was adorned around with those bas-reliefs, the work of Roman masters, which A. Venturi considers not independent of Paolo di Mariano. The bas-reliefs represented Christ handing the keys to Peter, Peter healing the lame man, the fall of Simon Magus, Peter and Paul leaving prison, the Crucifixion of St. Peter and the beheading of St. Paul.

XVIII. THE NEW BASILICA

Pope Julius II, who in March 1505 had sought to build a chapel near the old Vatican Basilica in which to erect his mausoleum, in April of the same year wished to resume the works according to the plans of his predecessors Nicholas V and Paul II, but in the summer he came to the determination to rebuild the basilica on new and more grandiose designs. Between the two opposing tendencies — the Urbino-Lombard one with Bramante and the Florentine one with Giuliano da Sangallo — the former prevailed. In the Uffizi Gallery in Florence are preserved about 900 sheets containing studies and sketches for the new basilica of St. Peter, many in the hand of Bramante himself, others the work of his pupils, especially Baldassarre Peruzzi and Antonio da Sangallo. The new building was to surpass in magnificence and size all other churches, as Julius II himself would say in his bull of 19 February 1513. Bramante had declared that he wished to place the dome of the Pantheon above the vaults of the temple of Peace, as the basilica of Constantine in the Roman Forum was then called. The plan of the basilica on a Greek cross would have occupied an area of 24,000 sq. m., whereas later in the execution Michelangelo limited it to 14,500 sq. m. Against the bold project of Pope Julius II oppositions arose, as the Augustinian Onofrio Panvinio recounts (De rebus antiquis basilicae S. Petri); several satires also circulated through the city. But Julius II did not swerve from his determination, taken in consequence of the miserable structural condition of the old building threatening ruin. By a decree of 10 November 1505 the Pope assigned a legacy for the construction of the new basilica. On 6 January 1506 he wrote to the King, the bishops and the nobles of England and to the other Christian sovereigns asking their help in so arduous an undertaking. On Low Sunday, 18 April 1506, Julius II descended for the laying of the first stone at 25 feet of depth from the floor of the old basilica where today stands the pier called that of the Veronica. On the white marble stone was engraved the inscription: "Pope Julius II of Liguria in the year 1506, the third of his pontificate, caused this basilica, reduced to a very ruinous state, to be rebuilt." There was deposited a clay vessel brought by the celebrated goldsmith Caradosso containing two gold medals of 50 ducats and ten of bronze; on the obverse was portrayed Julius II, on the reverse the design of the new basilica. The Pope, on his return from his journey to Bologna, visited the works in which 2,500 workers were employed, intent on demolishing the old basilica, so much so that Bramante was given the nickname of Ruinante. Indeed Bramante went so far as to propose to Pope Julius II that the position of the new basilica be shifted, that the tomb of St. Peter be transported, and that the façade be placed to the south, so as to have the obelisk of Caligula before the entrance of the basilica. But Julius II opposed this resolutely (cf. Pastor, III, p. 904). On 16 April 1507 the Archbishop of Taranto, E. Bruni, laid the first stone for the other three piers of the dome. During the pontificate of Julius II it appears from the pontifical registers that 70,653 gold ducats were spent to build the four piers. To protect during the works the presbytery and the confessio, which had been left open to the sky following the demolition, Bramante built a masonry structure that completely enveloped them, including also the apse toward the west, and which extended eastward as far as the base of the outer pergula where the first row of the vine-clad columns stood. The construction rested directly on the floor of the Constantinian basilica with bases of Alban stone (peperino) and with three arches toward the east, while to the north and south there was a single opening. Above, over the entablature resting on the arches, ran a cornice and the attic with a wall that supported the roof, as is seen in the drawings of Martino van Heemskerk, datable between 1532 and 1535 (B. M. Apollon) Ghetti. A. Ferrus, E. Josi, E. Kirschbaum, Esplorazioni etc., cit., p. 205 ff. and figs. 155-61). This structure was demolished only once the dome was completed, together with the ancient Constantinian apse, that is, in 1592. Bramante had his stonecutters copy, enlarging their proportions, the Corinthian capitals of the pronaos of the Pantheon; by 1513 he had already raised the walls for the provisional choir, utilizing the foundations of Nicholas V, while he proceeded in the southern transept in order to make use of the outer rotunda of the imperial mausoleum then called the rotunda of St. Petronilla or chapel of the kings of France.

But about a year after the death of Julius II (Feb. 21, 1513) came that of Bramante (Apr. 11, 1514). Under Leo X, his successors were Fra Giocondo, Raphael Sanzio and Giuliano da Sangallo. Fra Giocondo died shortly afterward in 1516; Giuliano da Sangallo left for Florence, and Raphael, left alone, had himself assisted by Antonio da Sangallo the Younger. In the meantime it had been decided to abandon Bramante's Greek-cross plan in favor of the Latin cross; indeed a project was even put forward to change the arrangement with a basilica of three naves divided by pillars; but on the death of Raphael (1520) there was a return to the Greek cross through the work of Antonio da Sangallo, Baldassarre Peruzzi and Andrea Sansovino. Leo X had assigned 60,000 scudi a year for the works, but these were diverted to the consolidation of the foundations and of the structures already built; the relevant accounts were lost in the sack of Rome of 1527. Only the summary accounts of works paid between 1521 and 1526 for about 60,000 ducats to a single contractor, Giuliano Leno, are known. The death of Leo X (1521) and the sack of Rome of 1527 halted the works, which were instead resumed with vigor only with the election of Paul III, which took place in 1534. He entrusted the direction to Antonio da Sangallo, who returned to Bramante's project, on a Greek cross, and presented the Pope with a wooden model. In 1538 Sangallo built a dividing wall between the east part of the old basilica, that is the eleventh intercolumniation, up to the point at which the new Greek-cross Basilica would end; in this way it was possible during the works to continue officiating in this first part, while the remainder was used for the new building (cf. Esplorazioni, cit., p. 207 ff. and figs. 162-67). Sangallo had associated all his relatives in the enterprise, thus forming what the painter of the time Giorgio Vasari called the "Sangallesque sect," which later gave Michelangelo Buonarroti so much trouble; he was called by the Pope in 1546, at the age of 72, to take over the direction of the works. Michelangelo obtained from Pope Paul III permission to work without any compensation, but only for the love of God and out of devotion to St. Peter. The brief of Paul III of Jan. 1, 1547 conferred on Michelangelo the power to wall up, reform and enlarge or reduce the project of the Basilica as he thought best, leaving him full freedom of choice also as regarded the personnel. On Oct. 11, 1549 Paul III appointed Michelangelo architect of the fabric for life. Michelangelo gave new life to the works; the annual expenses were about 30,000 ducats. It is calculated that from Jan. 1, 1547 to May 8, 1551, 121,554 ducats were spent. But after the death of Paul III (Nov. 10, 1549) the works did not continue at the same pace. Under Julius III (1551-55) Michelangelo's enemies turned to the pope against Michelangelo's despotic conduct of the works. Instead Julius III on Jan. 23, 1552 fully confirmed the motu proprio of Paul III of 1549. But the weakening of the pontifical financial means had as a consequence a diminution in building activity. In fact, whereas in the first five months of 1551 121,554 scudi had been spent, from that date to 1554 half that was spent, so much so that Michelangelo had reached the determination to leave Rome and return to Florence, but he was persuaded to stay by Paul IV, who on June 24, 1555 had confirmed the privileges for the Fabric of St. Peter. Pius IV (1559-65) assigned monthly subsidies for the works of the Basilica Vatican, which he visited on March 28, 1561 (Pastor, VII, p. 615). He confirmed Michelangelo as director of the works and in Apr. 1561 gave him 200 gold scudi. He appointed as substitute of the great architect Francesco da Cortona, but rejected all the accusations brought against Michelangelo by Nanni Bigio. At the death of Michelangelo (Feb. 18, 1564) the drum of the dome was almost finished, and the south transept had already been completed, as an engraving of the time shows, and that to the north was almost finished. In Aug. 1564 Pope Pius IV appointed Pirro Ligorio first architect of St. Peter and in the autumn of the same year Giacomo Barozzi, called the Vignola, as second architect. But both were dismissed the following year: on Apr. 28, 1565 the Pope assembled all the deputies for the fabric to discuss the work of vaulting the dome, and it was decided to ask the judgment of the best architects both of Italy and abroad. Pope St. Pius V (1566-72) too was concerned that the works be finished, above all for the vault of the dome; and he summoned Giorgio Vasari to Rome in 1567, lodging him in the Vatican, and the artist prided himself on having persuaded Pius V to adhere entirely to Michelangelo's plans. The Vignola was confirmed as head of the architects, at first alone, then assisted by his son Giacinto. Gregory XIII (1572-85), following the death of the Vignola (July 7, 1573), appointed as head of the fabric his disciple Giacomo della Porta and worked to provide the necessary means, especially for the construction of the chapel called Gregorian, for which the Pope disbursed over 80,000 ducats. Many discoveries of sarcophagi occurred precisely around the years 1575 and following; in 1580 the Pope transferred from the church of S. Maria in Campo Marzio the relics of St. Gregory of Nazianzus, into the Gregorian chapel, finished two years earlier. From an Avviso di Roma of June 2, 1584 it is gathered that to close the dome the Pope had promised Cardinal Farnese a personal offering of 100,000 ducats. From Naples alone, between 1576-86, oblations amounting to about 65,000 ducats arrived.

Pope Sixtus V (1585-90) succeeded with his indomitable will and energy in bringing the dome to completion, overcoming every obstacle. Giacomo Della Porta was confirmed as head of the architects; he had already demolished Bramante's temporary choir and built the new tribune. On July 15, 1588 the works for vaulting the dome began. Sixtus V wished to be informed daily of the progress of the works and assigned a sum of 1,500 scudi a week. Eight hundred workers labored there both by day and by night, and while in Rome rumor had it that the enterprise would be prolonged at least 10 years and would require no less than a million ducats (Bonanni, Numismata templi Vaticani, Rome 1700, p. 76), on May 21, 1590 the vault of the dome was finished and on May 14 the last stone was laid (Avvisi di Roma of May 12 and 19, 1590) at a cost of only 200,000 ducats. Before dying (Aug. 27, 1590) Sixtus V was thus able to admire from the palace of the Quirinal the gigantic dome soaring in the sky; only the lantern, the external lead covering and the interior decoration were lacking. The perfect spherical shell that constitutes the inner dome measures 42.34 m. in diameter. The enterprise of Sixtus V is immortalized in the mosaic inscription in golden letters in the lantern: "In gloria di San Pietro, Sisto V Pontefice Massimo nell'anno 1590."

Another grandiose work of Sixtus V was the transport of the obelisk of Caligula from the southern side of the basilica to the center of St. Peter's Square. Nicholas V had already had such an idea. Four months after the election of Sixtus V it was already read in the Avviso of Rome of Aug. 24, 1585 that in the middle of St. Peter's Square a wooden model of the obelisk itself had been erected. Sixtus V entrusted to the architect Domenico Fontana the transport and raising. The first took place on Apr. 30, 1586 and the second on Sept. 10, at a cost of 37,975 scudi borne by the Pope himself. Pope Gregory XIV (1590-91) had the lantern completed. His successor Clement VIII for the fabric of St. Peter made use of Giovanni Fontana, but preferred Giacomo Della Porta, and, at the latter's death (1602), replaced him with Carlo Maderno.

Given the raising of the level of the new Basilica with respect to the old by about 3.20 m., it was not possible to conto maintain the level of the ancient presbytery, which was raised, and the medieval altar of Callistus II from 1123 appeared too paltry. As for the erection of the new pavement and the consequent construction of supporting pillars and vaults within the central nave, it must be dated between 1575 and 1592. In fact, the new pavement is certainly later than 1574, as emerges from the description of the ancient basilica by Tiberio Alfarano; moreover, it could not have been completed before the demolition of the masonry protection built by Bramante. Perhaps it began after 1574, and this explains the numerous sarcophagi that Bosio describes as discovered in 1575; but it must be borne in mind that the same author also illustrates sarcophagi found in 1592.

As soon as he was created pope, Clement VIII (1592-1605) ordered Della Porta to demolish the old apse and Bramante's protective walls at the presbytery. Thus arose the need to erect a new papal altar. The architect placed the new altar above the altar of Callistus II, using for it a single block of white marble extracted from the Forum of Nerva, 20 palms long and 9 wide. The altar stands on seven steps, which are approached from the side of the apse. During the work, the report collected by Francesco Maria Torrigio spread that the architect Della Porta had discovered, through a fissure, the altar anterior to that of Callistus II, which was presumed to be that of Sylvester, with this pope's seal and the gold cross of Constantine and Helena placed above the tomb of St. Peter. Pope Clement VIII, having been informed, is said to have descended at once together with Cardinals Bellarmine and Sfondrati and, after observing everything through the small hole, to have had everything sealed up in his presence. But as Cerrati pointed out, that fissure could only have revealed the ancient altar of the raised presbytery contained within that of Callistus II; and Della Porta, in turn, placed the new altar above that of Callistus II. The same Clement VIII celebrated Mass there solemnly for the first time on 26 June 1594, without any consecration, as Monsignor Mucanzio, prefect of pontifical ceremonies, emphasized in his diary. But once the new papal altar had been built, it was also necessary to adapt the semi-annular confessio, since the raised presbytery had been removed. Della Porta began by lowering the pavement and thus in 1597, near the tomb of St. Peter, found the grandiose two-story sarcophagus in which on 24 August of the year 1599 the neophyte Junius Bassus (v.), prefect of Rome, had been laid. The new confessio was laid out wider than the previous one, and the chapel adjacent to the tomb was adorned with polychrome marbles and gilded stuccoes. Clement VIII then, in order to be able to go undisturbed to pray directly at the tomb of St. Peter, had a subterranean passage built for himself that led from the palace to the Confessio through the underground areas of the Basilica. The Pope furthermore completed the part above the dome; in 1592 he had the grandiose bronze ball cast (sixteen people can stand inside it, since it is 2.50 m in diameter); it was cast by Sebastiano Torrigiani; above it rises the cross, 5 m high; its upper extremity is 136.57 m from the floor of the basilica. The work was completed on 18 November 1593. Likewise the dome was covered with lead sheets held together by seven ribs of gilded bronze plates. Clement VIII entrusted the mosaic decoration of the interior of the dome to Giuseppe Cesari, known as the Cavalier d'Arpino, which instead the members of the Fabbrica di S. Pietro had assigned to Cristofano Roncalli. The Cavalier d'Arpino had himself assisted by a host of artists, among them Giovanni Vecchi and Cesare Nebbia, who composed the cartoons for the great mosaics of the four evangelists in the pendentives of the enormous pillars 45 m high; each medallion has a diameter of 8.50 m; the pen that St. Matthew holds in his hand measures 2.50 m in length. In all there are 96 figures, representing from the bottom the Popes buried up to that time in the Basilica; then the great figures of Christ, of the Madonna, of St. John the Baptist, of St. Paul and of the other Apostles; then the Angels with the instruments of the Passion; higher still, heads of cherubim, of adoring angels and of seraphim; at the top of the lantern, the Eternal Father. Contemporaries defined the work as "a temple set upon a church." The decoration, however, was finished under Clement VIII's successor.

Pope Paul V (1605-21), as soon as he was elected, confirmed the cardinalitial congregation established by Leo XI in his very brief pontificate for all the works relating to the basilica of St. Peter and appointed eight cardinals to be part of it. The same architects remained, Giovanni Fontana with his nephew Carlo Maderno. The new Basilica was still divided from the first part of the ancient Constantinian one by the dividing wall erected by Paul III in 1538. In September 1605 a large block of marble fell near the altar of the Madonna known as della Colonna, causing great terror among the faithful attending Mass, but all remained unharmed. The cardinal archpriest Pallotta reported on it in the Conclave of 26 September 1605; the Pope, having examined the proposal of the Congregation of Cardinals concerning the demolition of the surviving part of the Constantinian Basilica, approved it, at the same time ordering that the sepulchral monuments be preserved and especially certain precious monuments such as the ciborium for the relic known as that of the Veronica (v.), the mosaics of Gregory XI, the tabernacle of John VII. Of the greatest usefulness was the presence of the archivist of the Chapter of St. Peter, Giacomo Grimaldi, at the demolition works, during which he diligently took an inventory of those monuments. The demolition began at the end of September 1605, with the transfer of the relics of the altars; in 1606 the Pope appointed a commission to provide for the preservation of the monuments of the popes. Paul V had the most renowned architects invited to submit designs, as to whether Bramante's or Michelangelo's plans should be followed or the naves prolonged. Opinions were sought not only from Giovanni Fontana and Carlo Maderno but also from Flaminio Ponzio, Girolamo Rainaldi, Domenico Fontana, Giovanni Antonio Bosio, Niccolò Braconio, Ottavio Turriani, Gian Paolo Maggi, Paolo Rugliesi and others. Some maintained that the design in the form of a Greek cross should be kept, others favored the enlargement into a Latin cross, and among these was Carlo Maderno with a design that was approved by Paul V, overcoming also the difficulties raised by Cardinal Maffeo Barberini, later Urban VIII.

The work for the prolongation was begun on 8 March 1607; on the following 5 November the foundations for the new facade and the atrium began; the Pope ordered the preservation of Giotto's mosaic, known as that of the Navicella, which Cardinal Giacomo Gaetano Stefaneschi had had executed at the end of the 13th century. The work proceeded so swiftly that 700 workers were employed day and night; on 29 February 1612 the facade was finished, 115 meters long and 46 meters high, on which one reads the inscription: "In honorem Principis Apostolorum Paulus V Borghesius Romanus Pont. Max. anno Domini 1612. Pont. VII". On 22 November 1614 the coffered vault of the atrium was completed, 71 meters long, 13 wide and 20 high. In February 1615 the demolition of the dividing wall of Paul III began, and on Palm Sunday, 12 April 1615, the Basilica appeared whole to the admiration of the faithful. From the door to the apse the Basilica was 186.86 m long.

Meanwhile, from 1606 to 1617, Pope Paul V had the most important monuments rescued from the old Basilica and the tombs of the popes transferred to the underground chambers of the Basilica. But many precious parts were dispersed not only among the churches of Rome, but also outside it, as at Poli, Florence, and Assisi. Thus, for example, the mosaic with the Adoration of the Magi from the tabernacle of John VII ended up in S. Maria in Cosmedin; a mosaic medallion with an angel from Giotto's (v.) navicella, a cross in profile, a bas-relief and two representations of the Princes of the Apostles emigrated to Boville Ernica; a mosaic image of the Madonna Mediatrix went to S. Marco in Florence, etc. Paul V further had the open confessio built in front of the papal altar and decorated with precious marbles and bronze statues of the apostles Peter and Paul (works by Ambrogio Bonvicino) the front of the confessio itself, at a total expense of 12,000 scudi. The great exedra, the double flight of steps and the work of facing with precious marbles mingled with bronzes were the work of Maderno and Ferrabosco. Even during these works, ancient tombs were found beneath the pavement, of which F. M. Torrigio gave a summary description and Drei drew an engraving; it was then believed that these were sarcophagi of the ancient popes, on account of the pontifical vestments that were thought to be identifiable. As early as 1618 Francesco Maria Torrigio, with a piety far exceeding his scholarship, composed a description of the monuments arranged by Pope Paul V in the underground chambers of the Basilica, being the first to give the name "Old Grottoes" to that underground part obtained by means of the supporting vaults of the pavement in the central nave, and he called "New Grottoes" the underground confessio created by Clement VIII. Urban VIII (1623-44) summoned Gian Lorenzo Bernini to erect a baldachin over the high altar of the Vatican Basilica. The work began on 19 June 1626 (v. above: SEPOLCRETO ROMANO).

The bronze purchased in Venice and Livorno was not sufficient and, on the advice of Bernini himself, Urban VIII removed from the Pantheon the bronze beams still existing in the portico. The Romans complained about it and the papal archiater Giulio Marini was the author of the epigram: "Quod non fecerunt Barbari fecerunt Barberini". The bronze ribs of the dome were also removed, replaced with lead. But the bronze obtained was so much that, in addition to completing the baldachin of St. Peter's, no fewer than eighty cannons destined for Castel S. Angelo were cast. The four twisted columns, in gilded bronze, on the model of the Constantinian ones, rise to a height of 20 m. and support a baldachin also in gilded bronze with fringes and tassels, surmounted by the cross that reaches a height of 28 m.; the severity of the whole is enlivened by 4 gigantic angels, by putti and by the coats of arms of the pontiff Urban VIII. The casting was carried out by Gregorio de Rossi under the direct supervision of Bernini. Each column, with its capital and its base, weighed 27,948 pounds; and the baldachin as a whole weighs 186,392 pounds.

The work begun in 1626 was solemnly inaugurated on 29 June 1633. The expenses amounted to 200,000 scudi. Bernini received 10,000 scudi and, from the death of the architect Carlo Maderno (5 Feb. 1629), he was appointed architect of the Fabbrica di S. Pietro. Justly M. von Böhm, in his biography of Bernini, defined the Confessio of St. Peter's, covered by the baldachin, as "the spiritual center of the gigantic construction" (Lorenzo Bernini, seine Zeit, sein Leben, sein Werk, Bielefeld 1912, p. 58).

Bernini also designed in 1629 the decoration of the four great pillars of the dome facing the papal altar. On the ground level, in the four niches, were placed the statues of Longinus by Bernini himself, of St. Helena by A. Bolgi, of the Veronica by F. Mocchi and of St. Andrew by F. Duquesnoy. Above the niches he erected four loggias using eight of the 12 twisted columns of the old Basilica. In 1637 he also began the construction of the bell tower on the left side of Carlo Maderno's facade; the work was to be finished for the Jubilee of 1650, but it ended as soon as lesions began to appear in the construction on the first story, and in July 1641 the Congregation of the Fabbrica di S. Pietro decided on its demolition; the failed undertaking cost 112 thousand scudi and an illness for Bernini. To him, however, are still owed, under the pontificate of Innocent X (1644-55), the marble facings of the Gregorian and Clementine chapels and the replacement of the 32 columns placed by Maderno in the minor naves with as many in red marble from Cottanello. Between the pillars are two orders of niches, one below the other, amounting to 39, now occupied by 39 statues representing founders or foundresses of religious Orders; the first, St. Dominic, was placed in 1706 and is the work of Le Gros, the last, St. Louise de Marillac, in 1953.

The internal pillars supporting the arches and the counter-pillars of the two minor naves were faced by L. Bernini with polychrome marbles with 40 oval medallions representing the first popes, supported by winged putti and with the dove that is in the coat of arms of Innocent X; in the curves of the arches he placed 28 allegories of the virtues. The Pope entrusted Bernini with the design for the pavement of the basilica. The distinguished artist also built the colossal equestrian statue of Constantine. The successor of Innocent X, Alexander VII (1655-67), on the very day of his elevation to the pontificate, entrusted Bernini with the task of building the porticoes. And Bernini imagined the two famous porticoes with four rows of travertine columns (284) and on the attic 140 statues of martyrs and confessors; the two open arms, "to receive maternally the Catholics to confirm them in the faith, the heretics to reunite them with the Church and the infidels to enlighten them in the true faith" (Cod. Chig. Vat., H II, 22).

The laying of the first stone took place on 28 Aug. 1657; the work was completed and solemnly inaugurated in 1666. Bernini's last grandiose work in St. Peter's is the majestic chair in gilded bronze at the end of the apse of the basilica, supported by four doctors of the Church. The work, begun in 1657, was finished on 17 Jan. 1666. From the great central window a glory of angels in flight hovers around the luminous dove of the Holy Spirit. On four marble bases rise four colossi in gilded bronze, two doctors of the Latin Church (Augustine and Ambrose) and two of the Greek Church (Athanasius and John Chrysostom), to symbolize the unity of the Church; they support the Chair of Peter (v.), inspired by the Holy Spirit. The first mention of the oak chair, with an ivory panel, is not earlier than 1217 (G. B. De Rossi, in Bull. arch. crist., 1867, p. 34 ff.; id., Inscr. christ., II, Rome 1888, pp. 226, 348 ff.). L. Duchesne pointed out that in the 12th century Peter Mallius, who wrote to illustrate the importance of the Vatican Basilica against the canons of the Lateran, makes no mention of it (Notes sur la topographie de Rome au moyen-âge, XI, in Mél. d'arch. et d'hist., 22 [1902], pp. 395-96, n. 5). The ivories with the labors of Hercules do not appear older than the 9th century. Duchesne held that the chair was not located in the 4th century in the Vatican baptistery. The chair in the time of Maffio Vegio (Acta SS. Iunii, VII, p. 74°) and of Peter Sabinus (G. B. De Rossi, Inscr. christ., II, p. 411) was in the old Basilica in the chapel of St. Andrew (indicated with no. 15 in T. Alfarano's plan); under Julius II it was brought into the rotunda of St. Andrew, in the chapel of St. Thomas (Alfarano plan, cit., no. 169); Paul V had it transferred to that of St. Apollinaris (ibid., no. 168). Between the obelisk and Bernini's porticoes there are two fountains; in place of the one on the right placed by Bernini there was already another from the time of Innocent VIII; the one on the left was installed by Clement X in 1670 and is the work of C. Fontana. The water comes from Bracciano through the aqueduct of Trajan, restored several times, especially by Paul V and Clement X. - See plates XCVI-CII.

rectangular in plan, it occupied the space around the Cortile del Pappagallo, being inserted, to the south, into the older buildings of Innocent III, at the foot of the hill, and communicating to the southwest with a large chapel replaced, in the 15th century, by the Sistine. It was probably defended by corner towers, and furthermore comprised a vast garden, or pomarium, enclosed within a wall (in the place of the present Cortile di Belvedere) as the aforementioned Capitoline inscription attests.

In the 168 years running from the death of Nicholas III to the creation of Nicholas V, and which embrace the long period of the Avignon popes (1309-77), the V. was not inhabited by the pontiffs except rarely and sporadically, so that no important constructions were made there, but only works of adaptation and restoration.

Nicholas V, Parentucelli (1447-55), not moved by « vain craving for glory » — as he said at the point of death — « but to increase the authority of the Apostolic See », conceived a grandiose plan of urban reform (described by Giannozzo Manetti in the biography of this Pope), intended to rebuild, according to the new taste of the Renaissance, the Leonine City, the V. and the basilica of St. Peter. Death cut short his bold designs, perhaps presented by Manetti with some exaggeration. In the V. Nicholas V had the north wing and the west wing of the ancient residence of Pope Orsini demolished and rebuilt from the foundations, except, in the first, the part corresponding to the two superimposed halls called of the Pontiffs and of Constantine. The latter then preserved their beamed ceilings (the present false vaults date from the 16th century), while the others, that is the ground-floor rooms (where the Vatican Library founded by him had its seat), those of the first and second floors, later known by the names of Borgia Apartment and Raphael Rooms, are covered with sail vaults, in the Florentine manner. Of the fortification works with which this Pope wished to encircle the V., there still remain the east-west and north-south stretches of a powerful wall, which start from the massive round tower (near the Porta di S. Anna), called, precisely, of Nicholas V. His architects were Leon Battista Alberti, Bernardo Rossellino, Aristotle of Fioravante, Giacomo di Pietrasanta and Antonio di Francesco, invested with the title of palatine architect as early as 1447. Many were the painters of frescoes and stained glass employed by him, but their works have almost all disappeared, except the Histories of Sts. Stephen and Lawrence, executed by Fra Angelico (v.), between 1447 and 1450, in the Cappella parva superior. The frescoes of the same artist in that of the Most Holy Sacrament, flanking the Aula prima (today the west stretch of the Sala Ducale), were instead destroyed together with the entire chapel for the widening of the so-called Scala del Maresciallo under Paul III.

The immediate successors of Nicholas V, that is Callixtus III, Borgia (1455-58) and Pius II, Piccolomini (1458-1464), carried out no notable works in the V., except, for the latter, a beautiful marble connecting door between the Cortile del Maresciallo and that of the Pappagallo, still in place. Of the constructions of Paul II, Barbo (1464-71), there remain only some internal adaptations (in the southern wing of the Palace some money boxes with coins and medals of his pontificate have recently been found), and the narrow staircase added to the right of the passage arch from the Cortile del Pappagallo to that of S. Damaso. Of one of his loggias, which closed the Cortile del Maresciallo to the south, there still remain some capitals and travertine arches, re-set in place by Paul III in the same Courtyard.

With Sixtus IV, della Rovere (1471-83), the Vatican acquired another monumental building: the Sistine Chapel, built by Giovanni de' Dolci of Florence, roughly between the years 1475 and 1483, in place of the thirteenth-century one walled by Nicholas III. As the structure of the upper part, furnished with battlements, demonstrates, it served not only for the religious functions of the papal Court, but also for the defense of the Apostolic Palaces. Perugino, Pinturicchio, Domenico Ghirlandaio, Botticelli, Signorelli, Cosimo Rosselli and their assistants (among them Piero di Cosimo and Bartolomeo della Gatta) worked on its pictorial decoration, executing on the walls the two cycles of frescoes with Scenes from the Life of Moses (Gospel side) and of Christ (Epistle side), as well as the series of the Early Popes in the painted niches between the windows. The author of the marble screen and of the cantoria was Mino da Fiesole, assisted perhaps by Andrea Bregno and Giovanni Dalmata. To Sixtus IV is also owed the definitive arrangement and painting (already begun under Nicholas V) of the Vatican Library (on the ground floor of the north wing), where, among other things, he had executed the celebrated fresco that portrays him in the act of granting an audience to Platina (today in the Vatican Pinacoteca), a work by Melozzo da Forlì (v.), famous for its portraits and its perspective.

Innocent VIII, Cibo (1484-92), rebuilt with a new design the lower Palace, between St. Peter's and the Cortile del Maresciallo, which from him took the name of Curia Innocenziana. This was later demolished by Bernini for the reorganization of the Square, but its imposing facade is well known from prints, drawings and paintings, especially of the sixteenth century (fresco by Vasari in the Sala Regia). The same Pontiff also enriched the Vatican with a summer residence, the Palazzetto di Belvedere, raised on the northern edge of the hill. The battlemented building, with a rectangular plan, was walled by Giacomo da Pietrasanta, on a design, it is said, by Antonio del Pollajuolo, a sculptor favored by the Pope. Its original appearance was subsequently somewhat modified by additions and reworkings, to which were unfortunately sacrificed, at the end of the 18th century, the chapel of St. John the Baptist, frescoed by Mantegna (1490), and the views of Italian cities, attributed to Pinturicchio, in the elegant loggia (now closed), to make room for today's Gallery of the Statues, commissioned by Clement XIV and Pius VI.

To Alexander VI, Borgia (1492-1503), is owed the massive tower that bears his name, for the protection of the northwest corner of the Apostolic Palace, as well as the new arrangement of the rooms on the first floor of the north wing, which he lavishly adorned with gilded stuccoes and had frescoed by Pinturicchio and his collaborators (the present Borgia Apartment).

After the very brief reign of Pius III, Piccolomini (1503), Julius II, della Rovere (1503-13), nephew of Sixtus IV, ascended the throne, and with him a new era opens in the building history of the Vatican, dominated by the name of Donato Bramante. This architect, worthy through his ingenious daring of his patron, conceived a grandiose project for the arrangement of the vast terrain between the ancient Palace and the Belvedere, to which he added the famous spiral staircase still preserved and which bears his name. These residences were to be joined by means of two long corridors with loggias open toward the interior, while the Palazzetto of Innocent VIII, in its part facing the new courtyard, would have been covered by a facade adorned with a great central niche. Two monumental staircases overcame the differences in level between the southern part of the terrain, lower, where jousts and other spectacles were to take place, the middle one, intended for the spectators, and the last laid out as a garden. Of this project Bramante executed only the east corridor (much altered later) where today the Chiaramonti and Lapidary Galleries are found. Also his work is — up to the second and, then, last floor — the new front of the Vatican Palace toward Rome, the so-called Logge, formed by two orders of galleries, in addition to that of the ground floor, later closed by Sangallo for reasons of stability. This construction, intended to hide the medieval facade of Nicholas III, was more extensive than the Palace it covered, and, in the part projecting toward the south, contained the "Papal Stairs" (as Vasari calls them) with a cordonata, transformed into their present form under Pius VII. Both these works were brought to completion, with a new design, after Bramante's death (1514), by Raphael, who added to the Logge a third gallery with a peristyle and to the staircase a final ramp, corresponding to a new and final floor. Continuing the work of his uncle, Julius II had Michelangelo fresco the vault of the Sistine Chapel (1508-12) with the Stories of the Creation, and Raphael the Stanze della Segnatura and di Eliodoro (1508-

,

1513), the latter finished under Leo X. Among his other minor constructions in the Vatican, Vasari also mentions an "aviary" now destroyed.

Under Leo X, de' Medici (1513-21), Raphael, having succeeded Bramante in 1514 as architect of the Apostolic Palaces, completed the two works mentioned above, built and had frescoed under his direction the Loggetta facing the Cortile del Maresciallo (ca. 1516), brought back to light and restored in 1943, and the famous "stufetta" or bath of Cardinal Bibbiena (1516). Largely with his own hand he adorned the latter with mythological paintings and "grotesques" in the ancient manner, which served as an example to his collaborators and pupils (Giovanni da Udine, Pierin del Vaga, Giulio Romano and Francesco Penni) for the painting, executed under his guidance, of the Loggetta and the Loggia. The latter was enriched with stuccoes modeled in the classical Roman manner by Giovanni da Udine, who, assisted by Pierin del Vaga, also adorned the vault of the Staircase of the Pontiffs in the Borgia Apartment. To the same Medici Pope is owed the building facing St. Peter's Square, leaning toward the south against the spur of the Logge, almost entirely rebuilt (especially in the facade) under Paul V. Leo X also had Raphael and his school continue and finish the frescoes of the Stanze di Eliodoro and dell'Incendio (1514-17), the latter consecrated to the pontificates of two great Popes his namesakes: Leo III and IV, with evident allusion to his own person.

To the Dutchman Adrian VI, Florisse (1522-23), who took little interest in art, succeeded Clement VII, de' Medici (1523-34), the Pope of the sack of Rome (1527), who had the frescoes of the Sala di Costantino brought to completion by Raphael's disciples, already begun in the times of Leo X. To him is also owed a "stufetta" with a graceful pictorial decoration recently rediscovered (walled up and filled with rubble) in the building leaning against the Papal Staircase (or della Floreria, as it is now called) toward St. Peter's Square.

With Paul III, Farnese (1534-49), the building activity of the Sacred Palaces resumed intensively, and specifically in their oldest part, which unfortunately also entailed the destruction of valuable works of the past. Antonio da Sangallo the Younger was put in charge of the works, and he gave the Sala Regia its present appearance, with its broad barrel vault adorned with elegant stuccoes by Pierin del Vaga, while the frescoes are by Vasari, the Zuccari, G. Salviati and other Mannerists, and the stuccoes of the walls are due chiefly to Daniele da Volterra, Guglielmo and Giacomo Della Porta. The works dragged on until 1573. In order to give a worthy access to that hall, intended for the receptions of sovereigns (as its name indicates), Sangallo enlarged the staircase that led to it from the Cortile del Maresciallo, thereby sacrificing the fourteenth-century Chapel of the Most Holy Sacrament, entirely frescoed by Blessed Angelico. In place of this chapel he built the Cappella Paolina, with entrance from the Sala Regia, where the two last frescoes of Michelangelo are found: the Conversion of Saul and the Martyrdom of St. Peter (1542-50). Between 1535 and 1541 Buonarroti had painted on the altar wall of the Sistine Chapel, by order of Paul III, the Last Judgment, already commissioned from him (ca. 1533) by Clement VII, in memory, perhaps, of the sack of Rome, while the Farnese pope made of it the grandiose manifesto of the future Council, as many details allusive to the questions then disputed (faith and works, the primacy of Peter, the cult of the Madonna, etc.) demonstrate, in polemic against the Lutheran heresy. Other works by Antonio da Sangallo in the Vatican are the two loggias of the Cortile del Maresciallo, built with elements of one of Paul II (whose arms are still seen on the capitals, while the keystones bear the Farnese lilies) and the fortified bastion which in its north-west corner is adorned with the coat of arms of Paul III (year VIII, 1542-43).

Julius III, Del Monte (1550-53), Marcellus II, Cervini (1555) and Paul IV, Caraffa (1555-59), built little in the Vatican (of this last Pope the grotesque painting of the vault of the Sala Ducale in its eastern section [1555] and some new rooms in the Belvedere are remembered), while with Pius IV, de' Medici (1559-65), an era rich in building works begins again. Working for him were mainly Pirro Ligorio and Sallustio Peruzzi (son of Baldassarre). In the course of this pontificate the western arm of the Belvedere corridor was brought to completion, according to Bramante's plan, with a design by Pirro Ligorio, who also planned the new facade of the Palazzetto of Innocent VIII on the same Courtyard, with the famous "nicchione", as well as the Casina of Pius IV in the Vatican gardens, his masterpiece, begun already under Paul IV in 1558, but taken up again by the Medici pope in 1560 and finished in 1562. This villa, a precious example of Mannerist architecture, adorned with very rich stuccoes in the antique style and with frescoes by Barocci, Federico Zuccari and Santi di Tito, is today the seat of the Pontifical Academy of Sciences. For Pius IV, Giovanni da Udine decorated between 1560 and 1562 the third Loggia (also called of the Cosmography), built under Leo X by Raphael of Urbino, and a group of Mannerists, led by L. Sabbatini, painted the vault of the western section of the Sala Ducale.

St. Pius V, Ghislieri (1566-72), had various works begun by his predecessor finished and erected a new building adjacent to the Borgia Apartment, with three superimposed chapels (one for each floor), dedicated to St. Stephen, St. Peter Martyr and St. Michael the Archangel, frescoed by Vasari and adorned with stuccoes by Guglielmo Della Porta. He likewise ordered the construction of the little church of Sts. Martin and Sebastian in front of the bastion of Nicholas V (toward Piazza S. Pietro) for the soldiers of the Swiss Guard, who still have it in use, with paintings by Giulio Mazzoni and Daniele da Volterra.

Gregory XIII, Buoncompagni (1572-85), occupies an important place in the building history of the Vatican. His architects were Vignola and, after the latter's untimely death, the Roman Giacomo Della Porta, who can be considered an initiator of the Baroque. In his pontificate the decoration of the Sala Regia (Vasari and Sabbatini) and that of the Cappella Paolina (Sabbatini and Federico Zuccari) were brought to completion (1573), the Sala di Costantino was covered with a false vault, painted by Tommaso Laureti (with little advantage to the wall frescoes), and the Loggia of the Cosmography and the Chapel of Nicholas V were restored, causing grave damage to the paintings of Angelico. Gregory XIII furthermore had built the Palace (already begun under Pius IV) that closes the Cortile di S. Damaso to the north, continuing the Loggias of Bramante and Raphael with a second arm, where a team of Mannerist artists of great decorative talent (among them Antonio Tempesta and Matteo Bril) gave new form to the area of the grotesques (1575). In this wing, Lorenzo Sabbatini, Ottaviano Mascherino and the Alberti brothers frescoed the so-called Sala Bologna with a monumental plan of the Pope's native city and another of its surroundings, the latter recently brought back to light. Another important work of his pontificate was the construction of the Gallery of Geographical Maps (due to Ottaviano Mascherino) surmounted by the Tower of the Winds, the first astronomical observatory of the Vatican, adorned by the painters Nicola dalle Pomarancie and Matteo Bril (1581). This gallery takes its name from the maps of the regions of Italy (restored under Urban VIII), executed in fresco on a design by the Dominican cosmographer Ignazio Danti, and can be considered the greatest cartographic monument of the late Renaissance.

Sixtus V, Peretti (1585-90), the renewer of the City, had Domenico Fontana build the new pontifical Palace on the east side of the Cortile di S. Damaso (still today the residence of the popes), thus closing it also on that side with the continuation of the Raphaelesque Loggias; he cut the Cortile di Belvedere with the arm of the Vatican Library, where the Sala Sistina is found, intended now for the exhibition of relics (1588), had the so-called Old Hall of the Writers frescoed by M. Bril and others (1588), as well as a section of the present Profane Museum (1589), and had the painting of the vault of the Sala di Costantino rapidly brought to completion.

The three Popes his successors, Urban VII, Castagna (1590), Gregory XIV, Sfondati (1590-91), and Innocent IX, Facchinetti (1591), had few years of reign and left in the Vatican no construction worthy of particular note, while to Clement VIII, Aldobrandini (1592-1605), goes the merit of the pictorial decoration of the grandiose Sala Clementina, the work of Giovanni and Cherubino Alberti assisted by Paolo Bril, and of that of the Concistoro, adorned with a very rich carved ceiling, frescoed by Bril and Giovanni Alberti.

The pontificate of Leo XI, Medici (1605), lasted only a few days; he was succeeded by Paul V, Borghese (1605-21), whose name stands out on the facade of the basilica of St. Peter. He renewed in monumental form the entrance to the Vatican from St. Peter's Square, of which the so-called Bronze Door (1616-17) still remains, executed to a design by Martino Ferrabosco, with the help of Giovanni Vasanzio. To him are also owed the building beneath which the Stradone dei Musei opens out, in which are some rooms adorned with frescoes by Guido Reni in 1608 (the Halls of the Ladies and of the Aldobrandini Wedding), and the Scala delle Dame which gives access to the gardens, where he had the three fountains of the Specchi, delle Torri and dello Scoglio built, and had the one called della Galera, at the foot of Bramante's staircase, renovated by Maderno. To the Library he added some new rooms (Museo Profano), having a cycle of paintings alluding to his reign executed there between 1610 and 1612.

No important work marks, in the Vatican, the two-year pontificate of Gregory XV, Ludovisi (1621-23), and not many recall that of Urban VIII, Barberini (1623-44), the protector of Bernini, who, although he gave Rome a new face, in the Apostolic Palace linked his name only to the connection, on the second floor, between the ancient residence and that of Sixtus V (1623), where he had the Hall of Countess Matilda (today the Matilda Chapel) built. He adorned it with frescoes by Pietro da Cortona, who also worked in the adjoining room and in the oratory that takes its name from this Pope, next to the Chamber of the Fire, depicting above the altar a Deposed Christ. In another small chapel, opened on the third floor, Romanelli painted a Nativity of Our Lord. Some of the many building and monumental works of which the Barberini pontificate boasts in Rome are celebrated in the paintings that adorn the narrow staircase leading from the Cortile del Pappagallo (to the left of the passage toward the Cortile di S. Damaso) to the three floors of the Palace. Not a few plaques that recall transformations and restorations in the Vatican bear the name of Urban VIII, and among these works particularly worthy of remembrance are the partial rebuilding that somewhat changed the sixteenth-century appearance of the Gallery of Geographical Maps, and the construction of the lowered vault in Bramante's Gallery Lapidaria.

Innocent X, Pamphili (1644-55), added nothing to the Vatican buildings, but adorned the Cortile di S. Damaso with a graceful fountain, with a bas-relief, the work of Algardi.

The Scala Regia, famous for its perspective that corrects the defects of the space in which it is set, is adorned with the coat of arms of Alexander VII, Chigi (1655-1667), who commissioned this architectural masterpiece from Gian Lorenzo Bernini (1663-67). To the same artist is also owed the union into a single hall of the two that made up the present Sala Ducale. By means of a drapery of stucco raised by little genii, that is, an opening of irregular shape between the two halls, Bernini ingeniously succeeded in concealing the asymmetry between their diverging axes.

Of little account, for the most part adaptations and restorations, were the works carried out in the Apostolic Palaces under the following pontificates of Clement IX, Rospigliosi (1667-1669), Clement X, Altieri (1670-76), Innocent XI, Odescalchi (1776-89), Alexander VIII, Ottoboni (1689-91), and of Innocent XII, Pignatelli (1691-1700).

The 18th century, capital for the building history of the Vatican, opens with the reign of Clement XI, Albani (1700-21), first conceiver of that grandiose complex that the Pontifical Museums are, later realized by his successors. His coat of arms stands out in the Nicchione of the Belvedere, to which he gave its present decoration.

Innocent XIII, Conti (1721-24) and Benedict XIII, Orsini (1724-30), had no construction worthy of remembrance carried out in the Apostolic Palaces, but Clement XII, Corsini (1730-40), enlarged, in 1732, the Library with a new wing, adjoining the one decorated with frescoes under Paul V.

Benedict XIV, Lambertini (1740-58), founded the Christian Museum of the Vatican and, in 1756, united it with the Apostolic Library, which he greatly favored.

Completing in 1767 the construction of the second floor of the western wing of the Belvedere Corridor (the present Gallery of the Candelabra), Clement XIII, Rezzonico (1758-69), fulfilled, though in a form different from the original, Bramante's grandiose idea.

The last important phase of the building history of the Vatican occurred with the construction of the grandiose complex of the Museum called Pio-Clementino, from the names of its founders: Clement XIV, Ganganelli (1769-74) and Pius VI, Braschi (1775-99), his immediate successor. Lacking space in the Capitoline Museums to preserve the most valuable of the works of ancient sculpture that were being excavated in Rome and that the restrictive laws of Benedict XIV did not allow to be exported, Clement XIV charged the architects Michelangelo Simonetti and Giuseppe Camporesi with preparing the plans for a new museum in the Vatican. By readapting or demolishing parts of ancient buildings, there thus arose, in about fifteen years of work, the elegant halls that connect the western wing of the Belvedere Corridor, occupied by the Profane Museum of the Library, with the Palazzetto of Innocent VIII, namely: the atrium called of the Four Gates, a small masterpiece of graceful but not affected eighteenth-century architecture, the work of G. Camporesi, the Simonetti Staircase (1789), monumental despite its modest dimensions, the Hall of the Greek Cross, the Round Hall, with its dome inspired by that of the Pantheon, the Hall of the Muses, decorated with frescoes by Tommaso Conca, that of the Animals and finally the Octagonal Court, created in the ancient Court of the Statues of the Palazzetto of Innocent VIII. A section of this building, profoundly renewed, was included in the new complex of the Pio-Clementino Museum and now bears the names of Gallery of the Statues, Room of the Busts, Cabinet of the Masks (with paintings by D. De Angelis) and Open Loggia. To this new and undoubtedly imposing arrangement it was not hesitated to sacrifice (without leaving any trace or graphic document of any kind), the Chapel dedicated to St. George by Pope Cibo, entirely painted by Mantegna, which was located in the corner between the Hall of the Animals and the Gallery of the Statues.

Pius VII, Chiaramonti (1800-23), continued the work of Pope Braschi despite the political upheavals of the Napoleonic period, his exile and the removal to France of very many works from the pontifical art collections, returned (though not all) after the fall of the Empire. To display worthily the sculptures of the Vatican he installed in the eastern section of the Bramante Corridor, and precisely between the Atrium of the Torso and the Gallery Lapidaria, the Chiaramonti Museum, and had built, to a design by Raffaello Stern (1818), the so-called New Wing, completed in 1822 by Pasquale Belli. This wing, parallel to the one added by Sixtus V to the Vatican Library, once again cuts through the Belvedere Court, thus forming the Little Court of the Library. The works and vicissitudes of this pontificate were illustrated in a series of mediocre frescoes, the work of De Angelis (1818), in the Profane Museum.

No important construction was carried out in the complex of the Sacred Palaces under the following pontificates of Leo XII, della Genga (1823-29), Pius VIII, Castiglioni (1829-30), and Gregory XVI, Cappellari (1831-46), who contented themselves with works of adaptation and decoration of little interest, among which those made necessary for the installation of the new Gregorian-Etruscan and Egyptian Museums in the building that closes the Court of the Pine Cone to the north.

To Pius IX, Mastai-Ferretti (1846-78), on the other hand, is owed the new monumental staircase which, replacing the old ramp, gives more convenient access from the Bronze Door to the Courtyard of St. Damasus. He also had the three galleries of the eastern arm of the Loggias of St. Damasus decorated by the painter Alessandro Mantovani (1870-1877), and he created in the Borgia Tower the great Hall of the Immaculate Conception, adorned with frescoes commemorating the proclamation of that dogma, the work of Francesco Podesti (1858), noteworthy above all for its numerous and faithful portraits of contemporary figures.

The coat of arms of Leo XIII, Pecci (1878-1903), adorns the Gallery of the Candelabra, added by this Pope to the Museum of Sculpture and decorated with frescoes by Lodovico Saito and others (1884); Bl. Pius X, Sarto (1903-14), had the tunnel passage built between the so-called Crotteone (beneath the western wing of the Belvedere Corridor) and the Vatican Gardens, as well as the staircase that bears his name, between the Belvedere Avenue and the Courtyard of the Holy Office, and he gave a new home to the Pinacoteca (until then housed in the Hall of Bologna) in the first ground-floor stretch of the western arm of the Belvedere Corridor (today part of the Secret Archive), with entrance from the Museums' Avenue.

Of little importance were the works carried out under Benedict XV, della Chiesa (1914-22), whereas Pius XI, Ratti (1922-39), the Pope of the Conciliation (1929), brought to completion a grandiose building program. He had the powerful Radio Station built by Marconi (1931); the new seat of the Vatican Pinacoteca by Beltrami (1932), with its admired helical staircase with two independent and parallel flights, the work of the architect Momo (1932); he added to the Casina of Pius IV, then restored and destined as the seat of the Pontifical Academy of Sciences, which he had founded, a new wing; he laid out the Gardens; he gave modern equipment to the Library and the Secret Archive; he founded the Vatican Laboratory for the restoration of works of art (on the initiative of B. Biagetti, in 1922), and provided his small State with other buildings necessary for its administration, such as those of the Governorate, the Post Office, the Tribunals and the Center of mechanical workshops.

Pius XII, Pacelli, gloriously reigning, continued the work of his predecessor, giving the Vatican City its present appearance. To him are owed the new seat of the Secretariat of State, the television station and a radical and rational restoration of the oldest parts of the Apostolic Palaces, carried out by the technical Services of the Governorate, in collaboration with the General Direction of the Vatican Museums tican and with the Laboratory for the restoration of works of art, work that has led to interesting discoveries, such as those of Raphael's Loggetta, the Tower of Innocent III, the cubiculum of Nicholas V and the stufetta of Clement VII. - See plates CIII-CVI.

Deoclecio Redig de Campos

V. PONTIFICAL MUSEUMS AND GALLERIES.

I. HISTORICAL NOTES

With the age of humanism the first art collections in the proper sense of the word were formed.

It is well known that the oldest public collection still in existence, namely the Capitoline Museum, was established by Sixtus IV in 1471 for the benefit of the Roman people; shortly thereafter the popes wished that others be formed, for themselves, in their own palace, to whose splendor the work of so many artists had already greatly contributed. With the famous statue of Apollo that Julius II had transported to the Vatican from his cardinalitial residence of St. Peter in Chains, and placed in the square courtyard adjacent to the Palazzetto di Belvedere, it may be said that the Vatican Museums virtually had their beginning. For if museums properly so called appear later, the passion for art collections that Giuliano de' Medici, a typical son of the Renaissance, brought with him to the Apostolic See, was then kindled in that sacred place and in fact has never since been extinguished. To the Apollo of Belvedere were added other statues which, in the square Courtyard where they were placed, justified the name of Antiquarium of the Statues, and thence the host of ancient marbles spread over the steps and into the loggias of the great courtyard designed by Bramante, and even into Raphael's Loggia, by the will of Leo X. Although the collection was open only to a few privileged persons, its pagan character could not fail to provoke reactions. And so it happened that under St. Pius V, the severe Pontiff wholly filled with the spirit of the Counter-Reformation, not only was the Antiquarium of the Statues closed, but most of them were banished from the Vatican and went to enrich the Capitoline Museum and also private collections, such as those of Maximilian II and Francesco de' Medici. But this hostility did not last long. Already with Clement IX the situation had changed. For some time a quantity of minor objects (inscriptions, vases, bronzes, coins, ceramics, ivories, glassware, etc.) had been accumulating at the Vatican Library for the illustration and commentary of literary works. The moment had now come to bring order to this material. Benedict XIV, continuing along the path traced by his immediate predecessors, decided in 1756 to found the first Vatican Museum properly so called, which was, in homage to the place, a Museum of Christian Antiquities. Placed at the southern end of the western arm of the Courtyard of Belvedere, it was entrusted to the direction of the antiquarian collector Francesco Vettori, who may therefore be considered the first director of the Vatican Museums. To the same Pope is also due the first formation of the collection of inscriptions of the Lapidary Gallery, which from the northern stretch of Bramante's Corridor, its first location, was transferred under Pius VII to the southern one, where it is presently found. In 1767, Clement XIII, with the collaboration of Cardinal Albani and perhaps also of Winckelmann, gave life to the Profane Museum, a typical coin-and-medal museum, which found a place in the same western arm, at the northern end. All these collections had been born from the Library, but the times were now ripe for other museums independent of it to be constituted, and according to a criterion that may be defined as modern. The great harvest of ancient sculptures that the new excavation researches conducted in the territory of the Papal State, now supervised and regulated, produced, induced Clement XIV in 1770 to found a museum of sculpture properly so called, the Clementine Museum, which, continued and enlarged by his successor Pius VI, took the name of Pio-Clementino. New buildings, neoclassical, according to the taste of the time, were constructed for this purpose, from the atrium of the Four Gates to the Greek Cross Hall, the Rotunda, the Hall of the Muses, and others were renovated in the ancient Palazzetto of Innocent VIII, where the Hall of Animals, the Gallery of Statues and Busts, the Cabinet of Masks, the Open Loggia, the Round Vestibule, the Cabinet of the Apoxyomenos, the Atrium of the Torso were created; the old Antiquarium of the Statues itself was, from square as it was, reduced to octagonal with the addition of a portico and four pavilions at the corners. On an upper floor there was the Hall of the Biga in the building of the Four Gates, and in the adjacent stretch of the western arm of the Courtyard of Belvedere, the Gallery of Candelabra. The vicissitudes of the spoliations that occurred at the end of the century during the Franco-Neapolitan occupation are well known, which struck not only the Pio-Clementino Museum, but also and more gravely the Profane Museum. Nonetheless in 1807 Pius VII was in a position to initiate a new Museum of sculpture, named Chiaramonti after his surname, composed of the gallery of the same name and the New Arm expressly built to contain perhaps the most grandiose and majestic hall of ancient sculpture that exists. To Pius VII is also due the constitution of the first Picture Gallery (which was later to change location several times, down to the present one under Pius XI), and of the Vatican Medal Collection.

Special fervor and rapidity of execution were shown by Gregory XVI, who within the space of very few years enriched the already conspicuous artistic patrimony with three new Museums: the Etruscan in 1837, the Egyptian in 1839 (a first collection is attested under Pius VII), both situated in the rooms adjacent to the Nicchione della Pigna, and the Lateran Profane Museum (there was by now no more room in the Vatican) in 1844; already earlier, in 1836, he had constituted the Gallery of Tapestries, following that of the Candelabra, and in 1837 the Hall of the Aldobrandini Wedding (on the same floor, further toward the pontifical Palace); no other sovereign, it is to be believed, ever did as much in this field. Pius IX not only added to the Lateran Profane Museum two halls dedicated to the Ostian monuments, which had come to light in the excavations he promoted, but he too wanted his own museum, which was the Lateran Christian Museum, inaugurated in 1854; a collection of truly exceptional importance for the documentation of the first centuries of Christianity.

At a great distance of time, in 1926, another museum came to enrich the Lateran Palace, through the work of Pius XI: the Ethnological Missionary Museum; and with it closes the not brief series of pontifical collections. Notable additions of recent times are the Guglielmi Hall in the Etruscan Museum, of 1937, and the Grassi Hall of the Egyptian Museum, just now constituted and opened (1953) to the public, not to mention the not few and important works that have gradually been added to the one and the other collection.

Finally it should be recalled here that even those rooms of the pontifical palace that were destined exclusively for the sovereign and the court and in which the greatest artists of the Renaissance lavished their art, were ever more freely opened to the public, especially after 1870, ending up thus being regularly included in the visit of the museums and galleries; last, in order of time, the Borgia Apartment opened in 1897 and the Gallery of Geographical Maps in 1906.

II. PIO-CLEMENTINO MUSEUM

In its numerous rooms (14), arranged on two floors and connected by the Simonetti Staircase, it contains one of the most conspicuous and deservedly famous collections of classical sculpture. It consists for the most part of copies or reworkings of the Roman age (1st-2nd century AD) and of products of Roman artistic craftsmanship, whose importance is increased by their number and variety; nevertheless, Greek and Roman works of the first rank are not lacking. The arrangement of the monuments is inspired by aesthetic criteria, with some grouping by genre, for example, the Gallery of Busts, the Hall of the Muses, with its characteristic ceiling, painted by T. Conca, attuned to its contents (the group, of Hellenistic origin, of the Muses), and that of the Animals, perhaps unique of its kind, for the singular appearance of a marble zoo.

Everywhere, but especially in the newly built rooms, there is a great use of precious marbles and a solemnity of decoration in the spirit of the age. The chronological limits of the collection run from the 5th century BC to the 4th century AD. Among the Greek originals of the 5th century BC are mentioned a head of Athena from an acrolith, the stele known as that of the Palaestrita, three fragments of the sculptural decoration of the Parthenon; from the Hellenistic period are two portraits of Diadochi and the celebrated Laocoön. Among the most important copies: the Girl Running in a Race, the Discobolus of Myron and that of Naukydes, the Amazon of Phidias, all from originals of the 5th century BC; from originals of the 4th century BC: the Apollo of the Belvedere, progenitor of all the Vatican statues and universally known, the Eros of Centocelle, the Cnidian Aphrodite, the Sauroctonus and the Satyr at Rest of Praxiteles, the Apoxyomenos of Lysippus, the only precious replica of this masterpiece; from Hellenistic originals the Tyche of Antioch, the Boy with the Goose of Boethos of Chalcedon, some figures of Niobids, a Persian Warrior from the donation of Attalus, the Aphrodite of Doidalsas. Finally the Belvedere Torso, for whose glory it would suffice to have been the model and stimulus of Raphael and Michelangelo, is perhaps one of the most distinguished examples of Hellenistic reworking of an older work.

Among the genuinely Roman works, besides numerous portraits placed especially in the Gallery of Busts, where the group of the so-called Cato and Porcia stands out by fame, mention should be made of the historical reliefs of the Ara Pacis Augustae, of the Vicomagistri of the Claudian age, of the Cancelleria of the Domitianic age, the altar of Augustus of the Belvedere, the altar of the Lares of the Hall of the Muses, the Casali altar and numerous other altars, for the most part funerary, in which Roman decorative art triumphs, and finally the series of sarcophagi which can boast on the one hand that truly venerable one of Lucius Scipio Barbatus, and on the other the two monumental porphyry ones of St. Helena and of Constantina: the latter monument (also called that of St. Constance), truly of capital importance, also for its splendid preservation, for the transition from classical to Byzantine art. Also noteworthy are the marble candelabra, from the Neo-Attic Barberini ones (the largest in existence) to the collection that gives its name to the Gallery of the Candelabra. Alongside sculpture, the Pio-Clementine Museum also contains not a few mosaics, especially in color: it suffices to recall the "basket of flowers" from the Via Appia, an exquisite work of the 2nd century AD, the very fine small panels from Hadrian's Villa at Tivoli in the Hall of the Animals and in the Cabinet of the Masks, and the grandiose floor of the Round Hall coming from the baths of Otricoli (1st century AD), certainly one of the largest and most complete that antiquity has handed down.

III. CHIARAMONTI MUSEUM

Formed by the long, monotonous Gallery overloaded with sculptures, modestly decorated with frescoes celebrating the pontificate of its founder Pius VII, and by the Braccio Nuovo, which is on the contrary a most felicitous work by R. Stern, it repeats on the whole the characteristics of the Pio-Clementino, of which it was the necessary complement. In the Gallery, among other lesser originals, are the fragment of a Boeotian relief with a horseman of the 5th century B.C., a replica of the Eros of Thespiae by Lysippus (4th century B.C.), portrait statues of Tiberius and Antoninus Pius, and numerous Roman portraits of every age, as well as numerous and valuable altars. In the Braccio Nuovo are the replicas of the Amazons of Polyclitus and of Cresilas and of a caryatid of the Erechtheum (5th century B.C.), the Athena Giustiniani from an original of the 4th century B.C., the replica of the Demosthenes of Polyeuctus (3rd century B.C.), the celebrated Nile from a Hellenistic original of the 2nd century B.C., the portrait statues of Augustus from Prima Porta, justly celebrated, of Titus, of Domitian, of Julia daughter of Titus, and various busts among which those of Caesar, of Ptolemy of Numidia, of Philip the Arab, the so-called Sulla; also to be remembered are a group of funerary cippi coming from the area of the mausoleum of Augustus and an alabaster cinerary urn attributed to Livilla, daughter of Germanicus; set into the floor are black-and-white mosaics (of which the one depicting Ulysses and the Sirens is notable) and one in color, all from the 2nd century AD.

IV. COURTYARD OF THE PIGNA

It takes its name from the famous bronze pine cone, probably the crowning element of a 1st-century AD fountain, brought here in 1613 beneath the large niche from the atrium of the ancient Constantinian basilica of St. Peter together with the two gilded bronze peacocks that still flank it and that come from the mausoleum of Hadrian (2nd century AD). Another important monument placed in the same large niche is the grandiose marble base adorned with reliefs of the centenary column of Antoninus Pius.

V. LAPIDARY GALLERY

Even though it is not properly part of the museums and galleries, one cannot pass over in silence this grandiose collection (which is, moreover, always open to scholars) of Latin and Greek inscriptions, pagan and Christian (about 3000), arranged by G. Marini (v.). In the first part, toward the Chiaramonti Gallery, almost as a continuation of the Museum of Sculpture, are grouped Roman sarcophagi of the 2nd and 3rd centuries A.D.; toward the middle are found two long pine beams, which are the most considerable remnant of the wooden structure of the famous ships of Caligula in Lake Nemi.

VI. GREGORIAN ETRUSCAN MUSEUM

It is certainly one of the most important collections of Etruscan art, especially of southern Etruria, to which is further added a highly valuable collection of Greek and Italiote vases and a small but notable Roman "antiquarium." The Museum began in 1837 with the material from the Regolini-Galassi tomb at Caere, discovered the year before; about a century later, under the pontificate of Pius XI, it was completely renovated and enriched with new rooms, as well as with a new collection, the Guglielmi Room: recently the Regolini-Galassi Room and Room VIII of the vases have been reorganized. The assemblage of the Regolini-Galassi tomb (Room II), with the numerous and at times highly precious material relating to one cremated and two inhumed individuals, one of them a woman (by the name of Larthia), of elevated social condition, offers a broad picture of the flourishing civilization of Caere both in indigenous products and in imported ones, in the second half of the 7th century B.C.; suffice it here to recall the famous gold fibula that takes its name from the tomb; other first-rate material (especially bucchero) is preserved in the same room, coming from other tombs at Caere.

Notable in Room I is a small group of sarcophagi and other stone sculptures, especially the travertine sarcophagus from Caere, of the 5th century, with traces of polychromy; here there is also an uncommon bilingual inscription in Latin and Celtic, coming from Todi.

The large and small bronzes and the goldwork are grouped in the large Room III. Worth recalling are the Mars of Todi, with a dedication in the Umbrian-Latin language, of the 3rd-4th century B.C.; a biga, probably votive, of the 5th or 4th century B.C.; the tripod of Vulci of the 6th century B.C., and then a quantity of statuettes and utensils: vases, lamps, candelabra, censers, mirrors, cistae, braziers, studs, etc., even a pair of sandals; and then, further, offensive and defensive weapons, alongside which must be mentioned a lituus, or military trumpet, which appears to be the only surviving example. In almost all these objects the elegance of form and the imagination and refinement of the decoration justify the reputation for excellence that Etruscan bronzes enjoyed even in Greece. Good taste and skillful technique are likewise revealed by not a few of the goldwork items: to be noted above all for the fineness of their execution are three bullae with figured scenes in repoussé, a silver-and-bronze clasp of "Daedalic" art of the 7th century B.C., and some figured shadows. Of the Roman objects preserved here, mention should be made of the fragments of a large statue of the 1st century B.C. and a portrait head of the 3rd century A.D., as well as various bronzes, gold objects, and bone objects: among the latter a doll and figured tokens for attending the circus races, of the 4th century A.D.

In Room IV, or the room of the terracottas, objects of different material are also preserved: urns in sandstone, marble, alabaster, etc., and various glasswares, the latter for the most part of the Roman age. The terracottas too (sarcophagi, friezes, revetments, antefixes, statues and statuettes, ex-votos, vases, lamps) range from the 7th century B.C. to the 3rd-4th century A.D.

The ancient vases occupy several rooms and are arranged on a chronological basis. From the rough products of the early Iron Age (Villanovan cinerary urns, Latial hut urns) and from the bucchero wares, one passes to the rich and select documentation of Greek ceramic art, especially represented by Attic black-figure and red-figure vases with works by distinguished artists such as Exekias, Brygos, Douris and many other unknown masters to whom modern criticism has given fictitious names. Among the rarities, a white-ground crater of the 5th century. Last comes the Italiote pottery, also with vases of large proportions (for example, funerary amphorae from Taranto) and Etruscan pottery. A notable series of bucchero wares and painted pottery, especially Greek, is found together with Etruscan bronzes in the Guglielmi Room.

VII. GREGORIAN EGYPTIAN MUSEUM

A typical museum arranged by the Egyptologist Fr. Luigi M. Ungarelli, a disciple of G. F. Champollion, in rooms decorated in Egyptian style by the then director of the Pontifical Museums, G. De Fabris. Without being able to compete with the largest collections of its kind, in Italy and abroad, it is nevertheless worthy of particular consideration, especially for the so-called Hall of Imitations, where no small number of sculptures are gathered, mostly from the 2nd and 3rd centuries AD, which were in fact executed by Roman artists in the pharaonic style, indulging a particular taste of the time. The majority of them come from the Iseum Campense and from Hadrian's Villa at Tivoli: noteworthy is a statue of Antinous in Egyptian attire. Among the pharaonic monuments gathered in the other rooms, particular mention is due to the sandstone head of a pharaoh Mentuhotep of the 11th dynasty (2054-2008 BC), the colossal statue of Queen Tuya, mother of Ramesses II, in gray granite (19th dynasty, ca. 1280 BC), two crouching lions in gray granite from a monument of the pharaoh Nectanebo I (30th dynasty, 378-61 BC), the green basalt statuette of the naophorous priest Udjeharresne, with a long famous inscription, the only Egyptian document of the conquest of Egypt by the Persian Cambyses in 525 BC and for that very reason of exceptional historical importance. Also noteworthy is the series of anthropoid sarcophagi in stone and in polychrome wood from the 9th to the 3rd century BC, as well as those of the funerary stelae and of the papyri containing various recensions of the Book of the Dead (15th-2nd centuries BC). From the point of view of religious iconography, particular importance attaches to the small bronzes depicting divinities and sacred animals, especially those of the new Grassi Hall, where there are also Hellenistic small bronzes and terracottas. Of the Ptolemaic age let the colossal statue of Ptolemy II Philadelphus be recalled here

(285-247 B.C.) in red granite, sculpted according to the canons of pharaonic art. Finally, in the aforementioned Sala Grassi, a choice collection of Islamic art (mostly ceramics) from the 10th to the 14th century is also to be mentioned.

VIII. STAIRCASE OF THE ASSYRIAN RELIEFS

On the walls of this short staircase (next to the Gregorian Etruscan Museum) are placed Assyrian reliefs and inscriptions from the 9th to the 7th century B.C. Here too are some Palmyrene sculptures (2nd century A.D.) and a series of Arabic (Kufic) funerary inscriptions of the 11th and 12th centuries.

Filippo Magi

IX. PINACOTECA

The Vatican Picture Gallery is the most recent part of the Vatican Museums and was founded by Pius VII when the Congress of Vienna determined the restitution to the Papal State of almost all the paintings and other works of art taken away by Napoleon. The Pope wished that the most famous paintings should not return to the churches and palaces from which they had been removed, but should be gathered together in a special museum, as they had been in France, for the greater convenience of scholars and artists. At the beginning the new collection was housed in the rooms of the Borgia Apartment, which, however, proved unsuitable for the purpose, for lack of space and of convenient light. In 1821 the paintings passed to the Apartment of Gregory XIII, on the third floor of the second arm of the Logge of St. Damasus; under Gregory XVI they were housed in the present Gallery of the Tapestries, from which they passed into the Apartment known as that of St. Pius V; only to return again, in 1857, under Pius IX, to their second seat. Bl. Pius X assigned to the collection a series of rooms specially arranged in the old storerooms of the Apostolic Floreria (with entrance from the Stradone dei Musei), which were inaugurated in 1908. The paintings remained there until the pontificate of Pius XI, builder of the present Vatican Picture Gallery, much larger, opened to the public in 1932, in a new building constructed in the gardens on a design by L. Beltrami, where are also found the offices of the General Direction, the Laboratory for the Restoration of works of art and the Storerooms, accessible, on request, to scholars. The arrangement of the paintings follows an approximately chronological order and one of stylistic schools, so as to give the visitor an idea of the evolution of painting in Italy, from the late Byzantines to the beginnings of the 19th century.

The paintings exhibited are about 460, among which are some of universal fame, such as the Coronation of the Virgin, the Madonna of Foligno and the Transfiguration by Raphael, the St. Jerome by Leonardo, the Stefaneschi Triptych by Giotto and assistants, some panels by Beato Angelico, etc. In the great salon, entirely dedicated to Raphael, there is furthermore the splendid series of tapestries with scenes taken from the Acts of the Apostles, woven in Brussels by P. Van Aelst, after cartoons by Sanzio, for the decoration of the Sistine Chapel.

X. GALLERY OF THE TAPESTRIES AND OF THE GEOGRAPHICAL MAPS

The first, which formerly contained the tapestries of Raphael's "Old School," now in the Pinacoteca, now contains on one side the tapestries of the so-called "New School," with episodes from the life of Our Lord, also woven by the manufactory of Pieter Van Aelst, but from cartoons by disciples of Raphael, some of which were inspired by drawings and sketches left by Raphael, a copy of Leonardo's Last Supper of Flemish manufacture (16th century) and a tapestry from the manufactory of Tournai (15th century); on the other side are displayed the Barberini tapestries glorifying Urban VIII, woven in Rome in the manufactory of the same name in the 17th century. The second, fully 120 m long, is entirely decorated with geographical maps representing in an almost panoramic manner the regions of Italy, ancient and modern Italy, the nearby islands (Sicily, Corsica, Sardinia) and the territory of Avignon, domain of the Holy See. The cartographer was the famous Dominican Ignazio Danti, of Perugia, who worked there from 1580 to 1583 by order of Gregory XIII, the Pope who reformed the calendar. The vault, adorned with rich stuccoes and frescoed panels, is the work of a team of mannerist painters, directed by Girolamo Muziano of Brescia. Urban VIII had the various maps restored (in the manner of the time), adding ornamental elements alluding to his family and somewhat altering their original 16th-century character. In any case, the Gallery of the Geographical Maps can be considered the most distinguished cartographic monument of the late Renaissance (v. illustration at v. CIVITAVECCHIA).

XI. HALL OF THE LADIES, GALLERY OF MODERN PAINTINGS, SOBIESKI AND IMMACULATE CONCEPTION ROOMS

These are rooms of the old pontifical palace adapted as exhibition halls for the not very numerous modern paintings of the Vatican Museums, which do not claim to constitute an organic collection, nor one of great artistic interest. In the Hall of the Ladies, whose vault is frescoed by Guido Reni, there is preserved in a highly ornate display case a collection of sumptuously bound volumes, which were donated to Pius IX on the occasion of the dogmatic definition of the Immaculate Conception. The Gallery of Modern Paintings properly so called is composed of a part of the corridor that follows the one of the Geographical

Maps and of two small rooms where some canvases by 19th-century painters are gathered. The best-known names are those of Lodovico Seitz (Adoration of the Shepherds, monochrome watercolor drawing), Francesco Paolo Michetti (Ideal Portrait of Innocent XI, which is in fact a self-portrait of the artist); Domenico Morelli (St. Januarius Receives the Blessing from St. Peter); Cesare Fracassini (St. Peter Canisius and Ferdinand of Hungary). In the adjoining room known as the Sobieski Room, there are exhibited the celebrated Martyrs of Gorham, and the immense canvas by Jan Matejko, the greatest Polish painter of the late 19th century, with the Victory of Sobieski over the Turks at Vienna, as well as, much admired by the tourist public, the affected St. Alexander by Loverini. Of the Immaculate Conception Room, with its frescoes by the hand of Podesti, something has already been said in connection with the building history of the Pontifical Palaces.

XII. RAPHAEL ROOMS: v. RAFFAELLO SANZIO.

XIII. HALL OF CHIAROSCUROS (OR OF THE PALAFRENIERI)

It has a magnificent carved and gilded ceiling with Medici emblems, around the arms of Leo X. In place of the present chiaroscuro paintings there were others, the work of Raphael, which represented apostles and saints, of which a memory survives in the prints of Marcantonio and a pale copy in the church of the Tre Fontane; these precious paintings were destroyed under Paul IV, not in order "to make certain little rooms of his into junk shops," as Vasari asserts, but to consolidate the masonry, as the recent restorations have revealed. The figures of Apostles and Saints that are seen there today are the work of Taddeo and Federico Zuccari, while the decorative part is due to Giovanni and Cherubino Alberti. The new decoration dates, according to the inscription, from

CHAPEL OF NICHOLAS VATICAN

The Little Chapel of Nicholas V, also known as the Chapel of the Beato Angelico (v.), was painted by the great Dominican artist between 1448 and 1450, with two superimposed cycles of frescoes representing episodes from the lives of Sts. Stephen (upper zone) and Lawrence (lower zone). Recent restorations have made it possible to rediscover, beneath the repaintings done at the time of Gregory XIII, the original painted base, consisting of hangings with decorative motifs of color and design different for each fresco of the lower cycle. Of the many works executed in the Vatican by the Beato Angelico, this is the only one that has remained. In it the friar-painter seeks to reconcile, without diminishing them, his mystical religiosity (still almost medieval) with the new spirit of the Renaissance and of Humanism, so as to produce a work pleasing to a pope who was himself one of the greatest humanists, when he was still master Tommaso Parentucelli da Sarzana. Unforgettable are many of the figures here evoked by the Angelico's brush, but particularly that of the blind man who advances toward St. Lawrence to ask for alms. This mystic painter's taste for celestial colors, such as blue and pink, is so invincible that it led him to color in pink the Roman relief with the eagle, preserved in the atrium of the SS. Apostoli in Rome, which he placed on the throne of the Emperor who judges the deacon Lawrence, and to dress in blue, a color nonexistent in the liturgy, the pope and his ecclesiastical court in the scene of the Delivery of the Chalice to St. Lawrence. A work of such a kind cannot be explained by critical and stylistic investigations alone, but must be understood through a profound knowledge, indeed a feeling, of the religious content that is its soul. This is why the initiative taken by the authorities of the Holy See, after the recent restorations, to include once again the Chapel of Nicholas V among the pontifical palatine chapels (v. illustrations at v. BEATO ANGELICO; TIARA) is to be praised.

XV. RAPHAEL'S LOGGIA

Raphael's Loggia forms part of the new façade commissioned from Bramante by Julius II around 1512, to cover the medieval one of the palace of Nicholas III facing the city. The second gallery was completed, following Bramante's designs, by Raphael, his successor as architect of the Sacred Palaces and of the basilica of St. Peter. The decoration of small frescoes, painted grotesques and stuccoes is the work of Raphael's school, under the master's personal direction, and represents perhaps the most successful attempt of the efforts of the Renaissance to revive the spirit of ancient art. The painters who worked under the orders of the Urbinate were mainly Giulio Romano, Francesco Penni, Perino del Vaga and Giovanni da Udine. To the latter are owed the most graceful stuccoes modelled in the classical Roman technique, which he discovered by studying the ancient examples then brought back to light, especially in the excavations of Nero's Domus Aurea. Typical of the Renaissance spirit is the ease with which the artists have here mixed sacred motifs, taken for the most part from the Old Testament (especially in the frescoes of the vault, whose series is known precisely by the name of Raphael's Bible), and profane iconographic elements which only their common artistic excellence succeeds in binding together. The Loggia was intended for the walks of Leo X, who kept there the most precious part of his collections of "antiquities," as appears from documents of the time. Recently there have been discovered, beneath a wall of Paul III, two painted and gilded half-pilasters, in an almost perfect state of preservation. These two elements, carefully restored but not repainted, give an idea of the strength that the colors and the golds of the Loggia must have had before the Sack of Rome, the Revolution, visitors, restorers and the natural work of the centuries reduced its decoration to that pale ghost which today, one may say, barely suffices to preserve a memory of it.

XVI. SISTINE CHAPEL

The Sistine Chapel owes its name to Pope Sixtus IV, who had it built by the architect Giovannino de' Dolci, of Florence, between 1475 and 1483, as the "official" private chapel of the Pontiffs, on the foundations of an older one, walled up by Nicholas III at the end of the 13th century.

Its pictorial decoration (planned by the builder, who kept the parts in relief inside to a minimum and personally directed the work of the painters) is divided into three periods, corresponding to the reigns of Sixtus IV, Julius II and Paul III. The first, drawing inspiration from the decorative schemes of the ancient Roman basilicas, had a group of highly accomplished artists (such as Perugino, Pinturicchio, Signorelli, Botticelli, Cosimo Rosselli and Piero di Cosimo, assisted by their pupils) paint the two cycles with episodes from the Life of Moses, on the Gospel side, and the Life of Christ, on the Epistle side, as well as, between the windows, the iconographic series of the first popes. Julius II had Michelangelo paint on the vault the History of Creation, from the "Fiat lux" to the Flood and the beginning of life anew on earth in the surviving family of Noah. Paul III, finally, taking up an idea of Clement VII, ordered Michelangelo, already old, to fresco the Last Judgment on the altar wall. Thus in this chapel there is not only a grandiose summary of the history of the world, from its dawn to the end of the ages (protohistory on the vault, the world of the Old Law in the cycle of Moses, the world of Grace in the scenes of the life of Christ, and the final conclusion in the fresco of the Judgment), but also a clear panoramic vision of the evolution of Italian painting of the Renaissance, from its adolescence in the 15th century, through its full 16th-century flowering, characterized by the perfect harmony, in the figures of the vault, between formal and expressive demands, down to the beginning of the decline of the "classical" aesthetic ideal, manifest in the tormented forms of the figures of the Judgment, where the expressive necessity of the impassioned ethical content counts far more than any formal concern. And truly it seems that Divine Providence guided the succession of these three phases so as to link them with such consequentiality, as if they had followed a plan established from the beginning. In fact, when Julius II, Clement VII and Paul III commissioned the frescoes of the vault and the altar wall, none of the three Pontiffs thought of connecting them to the ideal 15th-century cycles already painted on the walls. The first had ordered the sculptor Michelangelo, despite his initial resistance, to paint the Twelve Apostles on the vault, and it was Buonarroti himself who proposed frescoing there the scenes of Genesis, while Clement VII saw in the Last Judgment he commissioned for the altar wall (contrary to the iconographic custom that usually places it on the entrance door of churches) simply a memorial of the Sack of Rome, which in 1527 had afflicted his pontificate, and Paul III, who took up and realized the idea, made of that terrible painting the proclamation of the longed-for Council for the Catholic reform of the Church (v. illustrations at v. MICHELANGELO, vol. VI, pl. 53 [Judgment]; VII, pl. 29 [interior]).

XVII. BORGIA APARTMENT

This famous apartment takes its name from the house of Alexander VI, Borgia, who had it decorated with frescoes and rich gilded stuccoes by Pinturicchio (v.) and his collaborators and assistants (such as Piermatteo d'Amelia and Antonio da Viterbo, known as il Pastura), between 1492 and 1495, and lived there until his death.

The last room of the apartment, called the Room of the Pontiffs, was decorated only in the time of Leo X, by Perin del Vaga and Giovanni da Udine, pupils of Raphael. The pictorial decoration of the individual rooms, called the Rooms of the Sibyls, of the Creed, of the Liberal Arts (v.), of the Lives of the Saints and of the Mysteries of the Faith, reflects an iconographic program still largely medieval, even in the new form of the art of the Renaissance. This form is that of the Umbrian style, whose greatest representative was Perugino and whose most effective popularizer was precisely Pinturicchio. It is a form rich in decorative values rather than in high aesthetic qualities, and it is easy to understand how it came to be chosen by the Spanish Pope, for whom the Renaissance constituted an artistic phenomenon foreign to his cultural world and therefore easier to assimilate in that plain exposition which Pinturicchio makes of it. Particularly noteworthy among these frescoes, which count above all for their overall effect in the various rooms, is the portrait of Alexander VI (v.) in the Resurrection of N. S., an extraordinarily expressive effigy and certainly not unworthy of a Piero della Francesca, in any case far above the average level of Pinturicchio's art, an art that reaches another of its not numerous peaks in the great fresco with the Disputation of St. Catherine of Alexandria: a festive miniature, enlarged to the proportions of the lunetted wall, interesting also for the portraits that appear in it.

Deoclecio Redig de Campos

XVIII. SACRED MUSEUM and SANCTA SANCTORUM

It is the first true museum of the Vatican in chronological order (v. above: historical notes), due to the enlightened pontiff Benedict XIV, reorganized under Pius XI. In Room I, or the Room of Christian Antiquities, objects are collected that come in large part from the Roman catacombs of St. Callixtus, Domitilla, St. Sebastian, St. Pamphilus, etc.: glassware, lamps, Christian, Gnostic and pagan gems, objects in bone and ivory, in rock crystal, in gold and bronze, etc. Especially noteworthy are a Christ monogram of the Constantinian type from St. Agnes, a pitcher from St. Lawrence of the 7th-8th century, a nielloed reliquary of the 9th century from the Basilica of the Four Crowned Saints, an oval silver pyx of African provenance, of the 3rd century, an ivory pyx from the cathedral of Milan of the 6th century. The room was opened in 1768 with the vault painted by S. Pozzi, who depicted there the triumph of the Church and the theological Virtues; to the same period belong the cabinets with the busts of the cardinal librarians. There follows the small room known as the Room of the Papyri of Ravenna, adorned with allegories in fresco by R. Mengs with the help of C. Unterberger. It contains two display cases with gold-backed glass of the 3rd and 4th centuries, numerous and some of the finest workmanship.

In Room III, or the Room of the Addresses, are preserved for the most part furnishings and objects of worship in metal, enamel, ivory and leather, whose dates range from the Middle Ages to modern times. We note: a chalice of St. Jerome from the 9th century, a cross from Chianciano of about 1400, another from Muri of about 1300 and one from Kreuzlingen of 1557; a golden rose of the 19th century; enamels, especially from Limoges, rock crystals by V. Belli (1468-1546); ivories of the 9th-15th centuries, among which the famous Rambona diptych of about 900; and furthermore ceramics and plaquettes of the Renaissance, some fragment of fresco from the catacombs of the 3rd and 4th centuries, and two heads of apostles in mosaic from the Lateran Triclinium of the 9th century.

Through the Chapel of St. Pius V decorated by G. Zucchi (1541-90) on designs by Vasari and containing sacred vestments, designed by A. Allori (1535-1607) and woven in tapestry, one passes to Room IV, where there are other sacred vestments, among which stand out an English cope of the 13th century and a vestment of the Caetani family of the 16th century. Then follow Rooms V and VI where objects of art from the Christian East are exhibited, along with the reliquaries of the "Sancta Sanctorum" of the Lateran and other objects.

XIX. HALL OF THE ALDOBRANDINI WEDDINGS

Built by Paul V in 1611, it has frescoes by G. Reni in the vault. After having housed the collection of prints, from 1838 it was designated to preserve a series of ancient paintings coming from Rome and its surroundings. Famous is the fresco of the Aldobrandini Wedding, a fragment of a large wall painting from the Augustan age, inspired by Greek painting of the 4th-2nd century B.C. Also noteworthy are the paintings with scenes from the Odyssey from the 1st century B.C.

XX. HALL OF EXPOSITION OF THE LIBRARY AND SISTINE HALL

All hung with cabinets, once intended for codices and books, these halls are contained in a very long gallery of about 300 meters which also contains at its ends the Profane Museum (v. above) and part of the Sacred Museum (v. above). From the north one enters the Clementine Gallery of Clement XII, decorated in 1818 by D. De Angelis with episodes from the life of Pope Pius VII. In the first section are displayed objects of classical antiquity, among them a small original Greek stele of the 5th century B.C. and the gold treasure from the Aventine of the 3rd century A.D. Next follows the Alexandrine Hall, formed under Alexander VIII in 1690, likewise adorned by De Angelis with paintings relating to the pontificate of Pius VI. After the Pauline Halls decorated with episodes from the life of Paul V (1605-21) by contemporary artists, there opens, preceded by a vestibule on the left, the grandiose Sistine Hall, built and decorated under Sixtus V (1585-90). The numerous paintings that entirely adorn it develop two principal themes: the exaltation of the book through the centuries and the glorification of the pontificate of Sixtus V. Especially important are the views of the monuments of Rome. In the numerous display cases are exhibited the treasures of the Vatican Library: manuscripts of great antiquity such as the famous Greek Codex of the Bible, four Virgils, the palimpsest of Cicero's De Republica, the Terence known as Bembino; illuminated exemplars of various themes and schools, from the Roman age to the Renaissance; autographs of St. Thomas, of Petrarch, of Michelangelo, of Tasso, of Luther, of Henry VIII, of Manzoni, of Leopardi, etc.; drawings by famous artists such as the illustrations to the Divine Comedy by Botticelli; incunabula, etc., and finally a series of papal coins from the origins up to Pius XI. Resuming the Gallery, there follow the Sistine Halls of the same Sixtus V, with pictorial decoration of the time: notable above all are the transport of the obelisk in St. Peter's Square and the view of the basilica of St. Peter according to Michelangelo's plan, that is, on a Greek cross. Finally there follows the Gallery of Urban VIII where are displayed astronomical instruments, illuminated portolans of the first half of the 16th century and a machine for sealing the papal bulls. At the end of the hall are the statues of the sophist Aelius Aristides and of the orator Lysias, of the 3rd and 2nd centuries A.D. respectively.

XXI. PROFANE MUSEUM OF THE LIBRARY

It is a small collection, interesting above all as a typical example of those antiquarian collections that were formed in the 18th century. Begun under Clement XIII (1767), it was completed under Pius VI (1775-99) with furniture by Luigi Valadier. Particularly noteworthy are a bronze head of Augustus, Roman military diplomas in bronze, bronze statuettes and sculptures in bone and ivory from the Roman age, a head and arm of a chryselephantine statue of Athena, held to be a Greek original of the 5th century B.C., busts in hardstones; mosaics of the 2nd century A.D.

Filippo Magi

XXII. GREGORIAN LATERAN MUSEUM AND MUSEUM OF CHRISTIAN ANTIQUITIES

Gregory XVI entrusted the restoration of the Palace to the architect L. Poletti, assisted for the frescoes by V. Camuccini, and there founded the Gregorian Lateran Museum, opened to the public on 16 May 1854 for statues, bas-reliefs, sarcophagi, and epigraphs of classical art. It received what had been gathered in the Vatican Storerooms or was too crowded in the Pio Clementino and Chiaramonti Museums, as well as what had been arranged from the time of Pius VII onward in the rooms of the Borgia apartment, adding to these the best pieces that had come to light in recent times, also through substantial donations, such as, for example, the statue of Sophocles found at Terracina, donated by the Counts Antonelli. The Museum occupied the fourteen rooms of the ground floor, while a series of paintings and mosaics were arranged in some rooms of the piano nobile. Pius IX entrusted to Fr. Marchi and to G. B. De Rossi in 1850 the task of building in the grand staircase and in the loggias a Museum of Christian antiquities, which was inaugurated in 1854, gathering the most notable Christian sarcophagi, scattered in churches, in palaces, or recently brought to light; G. B. De Rossi arranged on the walls of the first-floor loggias an imposing collection of Christian inscriptions, arranging them according to their content, that is, in the first place public monuments of Christian worship, then certain Damasian poems either original or in copy in honor of the Roman martyrs; there follow the sepulchral inscriptions, beginning with those bearing a certain date, then the dogmatic ones and among these the distinguished fragments of the original cippus of Alberic (v.); there follow the inscriptions relating to the ecclesiastical hierarchy, to homeland, to family, to civil or military offices, to trades; the inscriptions with representations of Christian symbols or alluding to the civil life of the deceased, epigraphs with special phrases. Some panels contain a collection of Christian inscriptions arranged according to their provenance from the various cemeteries. Both the profane Gregorian Museum and the Christian Pio Lateranense have undergone notable increases since their foundations, while the paintings were brought back to the Vatican. O. Marucchi, who succeeded G. B. De Rossi in the direction of these Museums, added to them a collection of Jewish antiquities, in which many of the epigraphs found in the Jewish cemetery of Monteverde on the Via Portuense were arranged.

Enrico Josi

XXIII. PONTIFICAL MISSIONARY ETHNOLOGICAL MUSEUM OF THE LATERAN

It was created by Pius XI with the motu proprio Quoniam tam praeclara of 12 Nov. 1926 in order to document, from the missiological and ethnological point of view, the stages of missionary expansion in the world, assigning to it as its magnificent seat the Apostolic Palace of the Lateran, built by Sixtus V on designs by Domenico Fontana (1586-90), not as a papal residence, but as a monument commemorating the ancient patriarchate. And that Pontiff willed it so that in the same pontifical Palace, beside the Church, mother of all churches, the first dawnings of the faith among today's unbelievers might correspond to the first dawnings that already illumined pagan Rome 4, that is, so that the new Museum might crown the cycle of historical-archaeological, Christian-Roman documentation begun there itself by Gregory XVI with the Profane Museum (v. above), and developed by Pius IX (1854) with the Christian Museum (v. above). Not without reason did the same Pius XI decree that precisely on the site of the vanished patriarchate, near his Cathedral, amid rare relics and precious furnishings from the mission lands, with an evident allusion to the Constantinian Edict of 313, the new peace between Church and State should be sealed in the Lateran Pacts (11 Feb. 1929).

The collections of the Museum, about fifty thousand objects, come for the most part from the Vatican Missionary Exposition of 1925, and to it contributed 185 vicariates, 71 prefectures, 78 missions, 51 dioceses, 16 archdioceses, 7 prelatures nullius, that is, almost all the missionary circumscriptions of the world, as well as 163 religious Orders and missionary institutes, 13 indigenous religious communities, various scientific societies, and several private individuals. To these were added important collections that had belonged to the unfortunately dispersed holdings of the famous Borgia Museum of Propaganda Fide (18th-19th centuries), and of the Vatican Exposition for the jubilee of Leo XIII. Subsequently the Museum, which occupies 26 large halls and 5 galleries with a total area of 6000 square meters, has been notably enriched with entire highly valuable collections and rare relics of every phot. of the Museum
VATICAN. - The dying Te-Cum-Sch, Chief of the League of the Western Indian Tribes, who died during the battle of Tames (1813), by Ferdinand Pettrich (clay sculpture) - Ethnological Missionary Museum of the Lateran.

part of the world, thanks to the uninterrupted papal munificence, to purchases, to donations.

The technical organization, the preservation and the critical cataloguing of the material are the responsibility of the Museum's scientific direction, which was first entrusted to the well-known scholar Fr. Wilhelm Schmidt S.V.D.; a scientific direction which, in the mind of the founding Pontiff, constitutes, with the aid of a rich specialized library and a dedicated archival collection, also an institute devoted to the comparative study of the different cultures in accordance with the modern orientations of historical-cultural ethnology. That is, of that positive science which, more than any other, has in the last fifty years contributed to demolishing the insidious and anti-scientific apriorisms of evolutionism. The Museum thus, moreover, soon became a well-known and lively center of contacts, relations and scholarly exchanges with similar institutes everywhere and with illustrious personalities from the world of scholars, relations that gradually became so intense as to impose the necessity of a dedicated periodical publication, the Annali Lateranensi (v.), intended from 1937 onward to insert, amid ever broader support and collaboration, into the concert of cultural-history studies, also the authoritative voice of the Lateran research center.

Since 1948 a systematic and patient work of reorganizing the collections has been under way in order to make them, also in their display, more responsive to the new scientific and aesthetic criteria, and at the same time more didactically useful and attractive to the general public, better emphasizing the truly exceptional, and often unique, importance of collections such as the ceramics and porcelains of Persia and Mesopotamia, the Chinese bronzes, ceramics and porcelains, the ethnographic collections of the Solomon Islands, of New Guinea, of the Bororos of Brazil, of the indigenous peoples of Paraguay, Mexico, Peru, Argentina, as well as of the Blacks of the Belgian Congo. Of special note are the sculptures of the Redskins by the sculptor Pettrich (v.) and the individual collections of indigenous sacred art.

Pancrazio Maarschalkerweerd

XXIV. MOSAIC STUDIO OF THE REV. FABBRICA OF S. PETER

The great impetus given, in the decoration of the basilica of St. Peter, to the mosaic art, as the one that would have suffered least from the ravages of time, led to the establishment, under the authority of the Rev. Fabbrica, of a well-equipped workshop, which was also to provide for the preservation of the mosaics themselves. Largely favored by Sixtus V, who may well be considered its founder, it was endowed from 1585 with a very well-stocked store of enamels, comprising about 17,000 tints. Once the decoration work of the basilica was completed, the workshop, by then flourishing, began to try its hand at the mosaic reproduction of altarpieces, although the first attempt of this kind, made in 1620 by Giovanni Battista Calandra, cannot be said to have been too successfully executed. All-

Nevertheless the subsequent marvelous compositions of Fabio Cristofari and of his son Pietro Paolo, such as the pictures reproducing the St. Petronilla of Guercino and the Communion of St. Jerome of Domenichino, testify to the high technical perfection which it managed to reach, so much so that in 1727, reorganized and ordered in a stable manner, always under the jurisdiction of the Rev. Fabbrica, it acquired the true and proper character of a Studio, of which Cristofari himself became the first superintendent.

Housed at first in various rooms of the Fabbrica, with the French occupation it was removed from the jurisdiction of the Rev. Fabbrica and named "Imperial Mosaic Studio"; in 1814 Pius VII installed it in the Palazzo Giraud in Borgo; in 1825 it was then again transferred to the Vatican through the work of Leo XII, in 1931 it passed into the specially built single-story building constructed by Pius XI in the rear part of the basilica of St. Peter: the series of colored enamels, rich in about 30 thousand varieties, is kept in 9 thousand metal drawers.

From the Studio have come valuable works that adorn, besides the Vatican basilica, the basilica of St. Paul Outside the Walls, for which the series of portraits of the Roman Pontiffs was executed, ordered by Pius IX with the brief Quum artes optimae of 14 May 1847, the sanctuary of Loreto, other churches, etc. The reproduction of the shield of Achilles, described in the Iliad, offered by Leo XII to King Charles X of France, has remained famous. - See plate CXII.

Niccolò Del Re

VI. THE VATICAN LIBRARY.

I. HISTORICAL NOTES

Library and archival collections owned and used by the Apostolic See were formed and dispersed several times, with a material succession that was also interrupted, over the course of the thousand-year history of the Roman Church. Of the most ancient pontifical libraries the history is fragmentary and largely conjectural, since direct documents are lacking, and especially inventories. From the testimonies of writers of different ages it is legitimate to presume that the documentary and library patrimony of the Roman Church must have been copious in the first centuries and during the Middle Ages, even if in antiquity the concept of separate archives, generally annexed to individual churches, prevailed.

Archaeological remains of a library of Pope Agapetus (535-36) and of the ancient Lateran library have recently been discovered; but of these first libraries down to the time of Honorius III (1216-27) the entire contents have perished, except for the registers of his predecessor Innocent III (1198-1216). Of the library reconstituted by the pontiffs of the 13th century and found by Boniface VIII, the inventories of the years 1295, 1327 and 1339 remain; taken first to Perugia, then to Assisi between 1312 and 1319, it was largely dispersed. Of the Avignon library, formed after 1305, several inventories have survived, particularly important being those of 1369 and 1375, along with substantial library remains now in the Vaticana (Borghesian codices) and in Paris. Another library was gradually reconstituted upon the return of the Pontiffs to Rome, and was placed in the Vatican, but it too suffered grave losses in the upheavals of the great schism. The codices transmitted in 1447 by Eugene III to his successor Nicholas V amounted to 350 Latin, some Greek and Arabic. It was he (d. 1455) who was the true creator of the last pontifical library, the modern Vaticana, which has remained substantially intact and progressively increased over 5 centuries of life; for he, through a large acquisition made by emissaries and the work of copyists, brought the number of codices to 1160. By 1475 these had already more than doubled (2527) and by 1481 tripled (ca. 3500). To house them, a proper seat, adorned by famous painters of the time (Domenico and Davide Ghirlandaio, Melozzo da Forlì, Antoniazzo Romano), was built by Sixtus IV (1471-84) on the ground floor of the palace of Nicholas V, with entrance on the Cortile del Pappagallo; its four halls respectively preserved the Latin and Greek books, the most precious books, and the pontifical registers (bibliotheca latina, graeca, secreta, pontificia). Its illustrious librarian at this time was Bartolomeo Platina (d. 1481), and in this seat it was opened to scholars, and especially to the curials, also with lending widely practiced (the registers from 1475 to 1547 remain). After about a century, the collections of books having grown especially through the influx of printed works and the place having proved unhealthy, Sixtus V erected between 1587 and 1589 a new seat, raising above the stairways of the vast Belvedere courtyard the building that still houses the Vaticana; to which he furthermore gave more severe laws regulating its use. From the middle of the same 16th century, with the institution of the cardinal librarian, a permanent protector had been assigned to it: first in the series was Marcello Cervini (1548-50), then Marcellus II,

He was succeeded, among others in that same century, by the distinguished Guglielmo Sirleto (1572-85) and Cesare Baronio (1597-1607); and later, to cite only a few other names, by Girolamo Casanate (1693-1700), Angelo Maria Querini (1730-55), Domenico Passionei (1755-61), Angelo Mai (1853-54), Alfonso Capecelatro (1890-1912), Francis Aidan Gasquet (1919-29), Franz Ehrle (1929-34), and Giovanni Mercati (the thirty-eighth of the series, from 1936). During the 17th century illustrious collections flowed in, and down to the present other holdings and entire libraries have been added one after another to the original ones, generally remaining separate and distinct under their historical names. The manuscript holdings properly called Vaticani were given an arrangement by subject, toward the end of the 16th century, by the custodian Domenico Ranaldi, and the complete printed cataloguing of the codices was planned, but only partly carried out, around the middle of the 18th century, by the custodians of Lebanese origin Giuseppe Simonio Assemani and his nephew Evodio. Toward the end of that century the Vaticana too had to take part in the war tribute imposed by French arms in 1797 and '98, handing over 500 precious manuscripts, and furthermore incunabula, prints and other treasures; nor was everything returned in 1815.

The transformation of the Vaticana, which had remained substantially a courtly and palatine institution, into a modern library was accomplished progressively beginning with the pontificate of Leo XIII, in connection with the opening of the Vatican Secret Archive to researchers (1883). Through the work especially of the prefect Fr. Franz Ehrle, a Jesuit (1895-1914), larger study rooms and a modern storage facility with metal shelving for the manuscripts were prepared in it; the new scientific printed description of the codices was undertaken, along with the phototype reproductions of the most precious among them and the Studi e testi collection; the printed collections were increased, in particular to form a modern reference collection. Already its prefect, Pius XI further developed the life of the Vaticana, increased the number of librarians, built a large six-story storage facility with metal shelving for printed works, and similarly renovated the consultation room. By article 18 of the Concordat with the Italian State (1929), access to scholars was guaranteed, which had in any case always been generously granted, while the Holy See retained full freedom to regulate it. During the Second World War, and in particular in 1943 and '44, the Vaticana took an active part in the Holy See's work of rescue, sheltering all or part of the most important material of libraries and archives of Rome, Lazio and Campania, among them the collections of Montecassino.

II. COLLECTIONS AND HISTORICAL HOLDINGS

a) Manuscripts. The Vatican Library now possesses in total approximately 60,000 manuscripts, 7,000 incunabula, 700,000 other printed works, 100,000 engravings and geographical maps, and many thousands of volumes and archival bundles. Codices and printed works are grouped into holdings properly Vatican or owned in their own right, and into deposit holdings, generally constituted on a permanent basis. The holding of Vatican codices, which always remains open to new additions, is divided into sixteen linguistic groups, each with its own progressive numbering: Latin, including other languages with the Latin alphabet (approx. 15,000), Greek (2,607); Arabic (1,622), Armenian (40), Coptic (103), Hebrew (613), Far East (49), Ethiopic (276), Georgian (2), Indian (46), Persian (163), Romanian (9), Samaritan (3), Syriac (623), Slavic (64), Turkish (374). Other holdings of manuscripts owned in their own right are, in the historical order of their entry: the Palatine of Heidelberg, 1622 (2,028 Latin and 432 Greek, and furthermore Hebrew ones inserted into the respective Vatican holding; to the city of origin were returned by order of Pius VII 847 German, 26 Greek and 10 Latin); the Urbinati, entered under Alexander VII (1,779 Latin, 165 Greek and 59 Hebrew); the Reginensi, formerly of Queen Christina of Sweden, entered under Alexander VIII (2,121 Latin and 190 Greek, to which are now joined another 55 Greek, coming from Pius II); the Ottoboniani, 1740 (3,394 Latin and 473 Greek); the Capponiani, 1746 (289 Latin and Italian); the Borghesiani, 1891 (387 Latin); Notarial Acts of Orange (413); Rolls (288); Receipts and Expenditures (88); the Barberiniani, 1902 (10,041 Latin, 595 Greek and 160 Oriental); the Chigiani, 1923 (3,916, including 54 Greek); the Ferrajoli, 1926 (960 manuscripts and approx. 100,000 autographs); the Federico Patetta collection, 1945 (2,000 manuscripts, and furthermore documents and autographs). To these are added 16 hieroglyphic papyri, 37 hieratic, 9 demotic, 11 Greek, 9 Coptic, 2 Coptic-Greek and 24 medieval Latin papyrus documents. The holdings of manuscripts on deposit are: Casa dei Neofiti, 1891 (51 Hebrew); Borgiano of the S. Congregation "de Propaganda fide", 1902 (277 Arabic, 88 Armenian, 534 Chinese, 136 Coptic, 19 Hebrew, 37 Ethiopic, 15 Georgian, 27 Greek, 23 Illyrian, 33 Indian, 2 Irish, 1 Icelandic, 768 Latin, 1 Mexican, 25 Persian, 2 Siamese, 179 Syriac, 41 Tonkinese and 84 Turkish); Rossiano, 1922 (1,203, including 44 Greek and approx. 40 Oriental); Sistine Chapel, 1935 (706, and furthermore 233 volumes of the Camerlenghi and 299 of Diari); Giulia Chapel, 1942 (1,199); and Boncompagni Ludovisi, 1947 (480). Also deposited are the manuscript holdings coming from certain Roman churches: S. Anastasia (83), S. Angelo in Pescheria (51), S. Maria ad Martyres (134), S. Maria in Cosmedin (237), S. Maria in Via Lata (300), S. Maria Maggiore; and finally the archives Barberini, 1902; Caetani, 1935; Chapter of S. Peter's, 1941; and Chigi, 1944.

b) Printed works. - An inventory of the years 1686-90 numbered 12,528 of them, which resulted mainly from the original Vatican holding or "First collection" and from the Palatine of Heidelberg, 1622. Other major holdings of printed works, aggregated over the centuries to the Vaticana, are in order of entry: the dramaturgy collection of Leone Allacci, ca. 1669; Capponi, 1745 (3,210 vols.); Cicognara, 1825 (4,447 vols.); Mai, 1855 (10,485 vols.); Miscellanea Giovanni Battista De Rossi, 1894; Barberini, 1902 (31,671 vols.); Rossiano, 1922 (6,000 vols.); Chigi, 1923 (30,260 vols.); Ferrajoli, 1926 (40,300 vols.); Ruffin, 1927; Girolamo Rospigliosi, 1930; Caetani, 1935; Giulio Cesare Rospigliosi, 1935; Loreto, 1936; Merry del Val, 1938; Ernst Steinmann, 1938; P. Academy of Sciences, 1939; Benedetto Guglielmi di Vulei, 1940 (9,000 vols.); Seminary of Frascati, 1944; and Raffaele Casimiri, 1945 (5,000 vols.). Furthermore, the direct influx of new printed works continues, which are placed in the consultation room and in some thirty sections by subject or "General Collections", located in the depositories. A unified cataloguing of all these holdings of diverse origin has been undertaken starting from 1928, according to modern criteria established in a body of rules.

The incunabula amount, including duplicates, to approximately 7,000, belonging mainly to the holdings Vaticano, Barberini, S. Congregation "de Propaganda fide", Rossiano, Chigi and Ferrajoli. Particularly very rich is the series of Italian editions and conspicuous that of the German ones. Among the largest in number, the collection is also notable for the quality and rarity of the copies, not a few of which are on parchment, illuminated and with original and precious bindings.

c) Cabinet of Prints-engravings. - The ancient holding there is constituted by 161 vols., bound before 1793 and containing approx. 32,000 prints, divided by schools. There are furthermore preserved approx. 10,000 prints, likewise bound in volumes, according to the genres represented; and numerous others are contained in particular holdings, such as the Barberiniano, the Chigiano and the Rospigliosi. In 1933 the remarkable collection of Thomas Ashby was acquired. Also conspicuous, among the various holdings, is the number of ancient cartographic documents of various kinds (planispheres, nautical charts and the like dating back to the 14th century, printed geographical maps of particular value or rarity from the 16th and 17th centuries, etc.).

d) Sacred and Profane Museums. Medal collection. - As was once the custom of libraries, the Vaticana contains objects of antiquity and art, collected mainly in the two museums named; it furthermore continues to receive part of the memorabilia that are donated to the Pontiffs. As the seat of these collections, exhibited to visitors, are used the vast hall of Sixtus V (where, among other things, a selection of the most famous codices and printed books is placed) and numerous other rooms that extend along the entire gallery of Pius IV on the courtyard of the Belvedere. The first to be constituted, in 1756, was the Sacred or Christian Museum, opened by the will of Benedict XIV, who had as minister of his patronage the erudite cardinal librarian Passionei. Among the various collections that entered to form it, were the museum of card. Gaspare Carpegna, rich especially in objects coming from the catacombs and from the ancient Roman churches; the collection of early Christian glass of the Florentine Filippo Buonarroti and that of the Roman Francesco Vettori, numbering approx. 6,500 gems. The new museum, of which the first curator was Vettori himself, was housed in an ornate hall (1768). Important increments brought the repeated explorations in the ancient suburban cemeteries, especially through the work of the Commission of Sacred Archaeology founded by Pius IX in 1855. In 1907 the early Christian and medieval treasure of the chapel of the "Sancta sanctorum" was transported from the Lateran. Pius XI ordered to place there many other objects coming from excavations or from ancient churches, and of the Sacred Museum now located in six rooms, promoted in 1937 the scientific reorganization and the description in a series of new catalogues, according to the different kind of objects, belonging to Christian antiquity, the Middle Ages and the Renaissance: ivories and bones, enamels, textiles, glass, hardstones, bronzes, etc.

In 1761 Clement XI ordered the establishment of the Profane Museum, in which the objects of Greek and Roman antiquity belonging to the collections that had flowed into the Vatican were placed separately: in particular the cameos, hardstones, bronzes, and ivories of the aforementioned Carpegna collection, the precious Albani collection of imperial medallions and other conspicuous numismatic series. A characteristic setting with cabinets in rare woods was prepared for it. But its despoliation by the French in 1798 was almost total: all the Albani medallions, more than 200 ancient cameos and other relics were carried off from it. The collection, subsequently reconstituted, though far from its original splendor, numbers notable Etruscan and Roman objects, coming from excavations and purchases: ivories and hardstones, glasses, mosaics, marble reliefs, mirrors, vases, bronze weapons, some cameos and gems. A reorganization was carried out after 1936, and on that occasion the medieval and Renaissance works, previously kept in the Museum, passed to the Borgia Apartment, itself in the custody of the Vatican Library.

The first Vatican Medal Collection, attached to the museums founded by Benedict XIV and Clement XIII, contained 21,293 coins and medals, of which 13,562 were ancient; but it was almost entirely dispersed in 1798. The new one, having recovered afterwards to form again, grew with the entry of entire collections: Vitali, 1807 (3888 Roman and colonial coins), Tomassini, Belli, Sibilio, Randi, 1901 (15,000 coins); S. Congregazione and de Propaganda files (12,000 coins and medals for the most part Oriental); Pizzamaglia (4579 pontifical medals, dies and lead seals) and Celati (4000 pontifical coins). Two copious collections of coins of the Holy Land and of ancient and medieval Sicilian coins were added through the munificence of Pius XI; and 1900 Roman imperial, pontifical and medieval coins of various European States, found in the new excavations conducted beneath the basilica of St. Peter (1940-49)

passed to the collection by order of Pius XII. In 1940, the medal collection contained a total of 100,967 pieces, distributed as follows: 3588 in gold, 28,925 in silver, 50,211 in bronze, copper, mixed metal, 4618 lead seals, 2913 dies, seals, stones; 10,712 papers, glasses, casts. Distinguished principally within it are the Roman series, numerous in specimens and rich in rarities, and the pontifical one, esteemed for the quantity and rarity of the specimens as the most important collection of its kind.

e) Index of Christian Art. - A great repertory for the study of Christian art and antiquity, a copy of the "Index of christian art" of Princeton University (U. S. A.), was placed in 1952, as a detached section of the Vatican Library, at the P. Istituto d'archeologia cristiana in Rome. This catalogue of monuments, subjects and bibliography of works of art of Christian inspiration, prior to the year 1400, comprises an iconographic index on cards and another index of photographs of the monuments; and it will be progressively augmented with the most recent references and discoveries.

III. SCHOOL OF LIBRARY SCIENCE LABORATORIES

a) A School of Library Science was established in Nov. 1934 at the Vatican Library, with the aim of instructing mainly ecclesiastics and religious in the modern methods of organizing and administering libraries and of spreading the use of common cataloging rules (the relevant code, Norme per il catalogo degli stampati, has also been translated into French, English, Portuguese and Spanish). The teaching, of a practical and historical character, currently comprises five disciplines.

b) Restoration and photographic laboratories. - In order to provide for the conservation and restoration of the very large and ancient material of parchment, papyrus, paper, bindings, etc. of the Vatican Library and Archive, the prefect Ehrle, who in 1898 promoted at St. Gallen a meeting of the leading European librarians and paleographers in order to discuss these problems, established a special Laboratory, which carries out with a technique that is at times extremely delicate all the various operations necessary to repair the damage produced by time, by climate and by other adverse environmental conditions and by various mechanical and accidental causes.

As early as 1890, the Vatican Library resolved to establish a laboratory for the photographic reproduction of its manuscripts and printed books, entrusted at first to the work of outside photographers. In 1937 its own laboratory was created, equipped with all the apparatuses employed for the various processes: black on white, direct positive, microfilm, plates and films of different formats; ultraviolet rays are used for the reproduction of palimpsests. In this laboratory, enlarged according to new requirements, since 1952 the microfilm photography of the main body of the manuscripts of the Vatican Library has been carried out for the use of the Catholic University of St. Louis in Missouri, which by pontifical concession becomes the depositary of the copy. Moreover, for scholars a room has recently been prepared at the Vatican Library, provided with various reading apparatuses for microfilm and with quartz lamps for reading palimpsests and faded writings.

IV. PUBLICATIONS

Over the centuries there were numerous works published on the initiative or under the auspices of the Vatican Library. But it was above all the renewal promoted by Leo XIII in the life of the Institute that gave rise to certain scholarly series, which from then on have continued to grow. In the first place, mention should be made of the new catalogues of manuscripts, Codices manuscripti recensiti, so far about thirty volumes, which describe the following groups of codices: Vaticani latini 1-678 (M. Vattasso and P. Franchi de' Cavalieri; 1902), 679-1134 (A. Pelzer; 1931-33), 1461-2059 (B. Nogara; 1912), 9852-10300 (M. Vattasso and E. Carusi; 1914), 10,301-10,700 (M. Vattasso and E. Carusi; 1920), 10,701-10,875 (G. B. Borino; 1947); Vaticani greci 1-329 (G. Mercati and P. Franchi de' Cavalieri; 1923), 330-603 (R. Devreesse; 1937), 604-866 (R. Devreesse; 1950), 1485-1683 (C. Giannelli; 1950); Palatini latini 1-920 (H. Stevenson Jr.; 1886); Palatini greci (H. Stevenson Sr.; 1885); Urbini latini (C. Stornajolo; 1902-21); Urbini greci (C. Stornajolo; 1895); Regineni latini 1-500 (A. Wilmart; 1937-45); Regineni greci e di Pio II (H. Stevenson Sr.; 1888); Capponiani (G. Salvo Cozzo; 1897); Ottoboniani greci (E. Feron and F. Battaglini; 1893); Chigiani e Borgiani greci (P. Franchi de' Cavalieri; 1927); Ferrajoli 1-736 (L. Berra; 1939-47); Codici etiopici (S. Grébaut and E. Tisserant; 1935-36); Codici armeni (F. C. Conybeare and E. Tisserant; 1927); Codici copti (A. Hebbelynck and A. van Lantschoot; 1937-47); Papiri egiziani (O. Marucchi; 1891); Papiri latini (O. Marucchi; 1895).

In 1902 the collection Studi e testi (v.) was begun, intended for the edition and illustration of the material of greatest interest contained principally in the holdings of the Library and of the Vatican Archives.

The series of phototype reproductions, Codices e Vaticani selecti quam similime expressi, also begun by Ehrle, with the aim of preserving and disseminating in faithful images, photomechanically multiplied, the most precious codices, so far comprises about thirty volumes containing, among others, the Geography of Ptolemy (Urb. gr. 82), the Roman Histories of Cassius Dio (Vat. gr. 1288), Cicero's De republica (Vat. lat. 5757), the Virgils - Vatican (Vat. lat. 3225), Roman (Vat. lat. 3867), Palatine (Pal. lat. 1631) and Augustan (Vat. lat. 3256) - the Comedies of Terence (Vat. lat. 3868), the fragments of Fronto (Vat. lat. 5750); the Greek Bible, B (Vat. gr. 1209), the Joshua Roll (Pal. gr. 431), the Menologion of Basil (Vat. gr. 1613), the Christian Topography of Cosmas Indicopleustes (Vat. gr. 699); the Convivio (Barber. lat. 4086), the Monarchia and the Epistles of Dante (Pal. lat. 1729); the Canzoniere (Vat. lat. 3195) and other autograph fragments of Petrarch (Vat. lat. 3196), the book of drawings by Giuliano da Sangallo (Barber. lat. 4424). A separate series, dedicated to facsimile reproductions of notable codices belonging to ecclesiastical libraries of Italy, so far numbers seven volumes.

Other scholarly collections published by the Vatican Library are the Piante maggiori di Roma dei secoli XVI, XVII e XVIII reproduced in phototype (1911-36), the Studi e documenti per la storia del Palazzo Vaticano (in progress since 1933), the Catalogo del Museo Sacro (begun in 1936), the Monumenta cartographica Vaticana, edited by R. Almagià (in progress since 1944). Finally, mention should be made of certain monumental isolated publications such as the Pontificum Romanorum diplomata papyracea quae supersunt in tabulariis Hispaniae, Italiae, Germaniae, phototypice expressa (1929) and the Mappamondo cinese of Fr. Matteo Ricci S. J., edited by P. D'Elia (1938). - See plates CXIII-CXV.

Nello Vian

# VII. VATICAN ARCHIVE.

Established by Paul V in 1612, "it is intended to contain all the acts and documents that concern the government of the Universal Church."

Its official title is Vatican Secret Archive: secret because - according to the custom of the time - it was closed to public consultation and considered private, as the archives of sovereigns generally were.

Its purpose has always been, first and foremost, functional, that is - as the motu proprio of Leo XIII of 1 May 1884 expresses it - "it serves first of all and principally the Roman Pontiff and his Curia, that is, the Holy See"; to this first purpose there was then added the other, no less important, cultural one, on account of the historical value of the documents it holds.

I. HISTORY

From apostolic times, the popes jealously preserved letters, the acts of the martyrs and of the councils, administrative documents and in general the writings that related to their activity of magisterium, of jurisdiction and of charitable assistance. The body of these writings constituted the Chartarium or Scrinium Sanctae Romanae Ecclesiae, which as a rule followed the popes in their residences as part of the Chancery and of the administration. The presence of the pontifical Archive near the basilica of St. Lawrence in Damaso in the time of Pope Damasus (4th century) now seems unfounded (cf. Künzle, cited in the bibliography); what is certain is that in 649 the Scrinium was at the Lateran, the seat of the popes; from the reports of Deusdedit it appears that in the 11th century at least a part of it was located iuxta Palladium, that is, near the Arch of Titus on the slopes of the Palatine; Innocent III, residing at the Vatican, is said to have brought the Archive here. Nevertheless the very fragility of papyrus, which until the 11th century was the material normally used in the pontifical Chancery for documents and for registers, transfers and even more so wars and political upheavals (it suffices to recall the sack by Robert Guiscard in 1084) have meant that the precious archival material earlier than Innocent III was totally lost, save for rare exceptions, such as the purple diploma of Otto I (962) and the register of Gregory VII (1073-85); also lost are the documents (for example, the professio fidei of the bishops)

that it was customary to deposit and preserve at the tomb of St. Peter, while in the Sancto Sanctorum at the Lateran there is only a small papyrus fragment of an imperial donation (9th century).

Although the regular series of surviving documents begins with Innocent III, other transfers and other losses also occurred later: in 1245 the pontifical Archive was at Lyon, then it followed the Curia to Viterbo, to Anagni, to Perugia, to Avignon, from where it returned to Rome on several occasions. The pontifical Archive suffered new damage in the sack of Rome of 1527 and in the French occupation of 1798, but above all when in 1810, by order of Napoleon, it was transported entirely to Paris, where it remained until 1815. But until the 16th century the volumes and ancient documents were kept partly at the very offices of the Chancery and of the Apostolic Chamber, and partly in other places of the Vatican Palace, in the Guardaroba and in the Bibliotheca secreta. The need was then felt to establish a body of its own for the custody of the archives, and a beginning was made by creating in 1597 the Archive of Castel S. Angelo for the most precious documents, the "privileges of the Roman Church"; in reality this was not an "archive" in the modern sense of the word, but rather the "trésor des chartes", kept in the safest room of the Castle together with the pontifical treasure.

The foundation of the Vatican Archive by Paul V marked the beginning of the central Archive of the Church. As its seat certain rooms adjacent to the grandiose

Sistine Hall of the Library were designated, which still today display on the ancient poplar cabinets and in the frescoed vaults the family arms of the founder. To the first halls others on the upper floor were soon added to house the diplomatic correspondence of the Secretariat of State; in 1784 there came from Avignon the part of the pontifical Archive that had still remained there, with the registers of letters known as "Avignon" registers; in 1798 the Archive of Castel S. Angelo was transferred to the Vatican. The subsequent growth of the material made new expansions necessary: the rooms of the Tower of the Winds on three floors, the long gallery of the attics that extends along the entire western side of the Belvedere Courtyard, the halls on the ground floor of the Courtyard of the Library and finally, in 1930, the halls of the old Pinacoteca. In 1933 the ground-floor premises were fitted with metal shelving for a linear development of over 13,000 m.; in 1951 similar shelving was installed on the floor of the old attics for another 9,000 m.

A decisive event in the history of the Archive was its opening to the free consultation of scholars in 1881, through the munificence of Pope Leo XIII; it thus became the most important center of historical research in the world, bringing about the foundation in Rome of the various national historical institutes, and, while the internal work of arrangement and inventorying multiplied to meet the new needs, the expediency was by then recognized of centralizing there the Archives of the Curia and of also gathering there extraneous archives that had a connection with the history of the Pontificate. In 1892 there was brought there from the Lateran the Archive of the Dataria Apostolica with the two important series of the Lateran registers (pontifical letters) and of the registers of supplications; between 1904 and 1908 the Lateran briefs, the Archive of the S. Congr. Concistoriale and the registers of the Secretariat of Briefs; numerous other fonds have entered especially in recent decades, among which the Archives of the S. Romana Rota, of the SS. Congregations of the Council, of Rites and of Sacraments, of the apostolic nunciatures abroad, of the Vicariate of Rome and of Roman confraternities. Special mention is deserved by the Archives of Roman families, rich in documents relating to ecclesiastical history: Borghese, Boncompagni, Della Valle-Del Bufalo, Patrizi-Montoro, Rospigliosi and Ruspoli. At the Vatican Archive is deposited the card index of the census of the ecclesiastical Archives of Italy proclaimed in 1942, with information on the contents of the individual episcopal, capitular, parochial archives, etc.

II. CONTENTS

The organization of the Vatican Archive reflects its historical formation, whereby the transfers of the various fonds took place at different times and without a pre-established plan. It is therefore impossible, without descending to particulars, to offer a complete organic picture of the archival material by following the classification of the offices from which the documents come; it suffices to observe that the very important series of Vatican registers was constituted in the 16th century by bringing together in chronological order volumes of diverse provenance, that is, from the Chancery, the Camera, the common secretaries and the domestic secretaries. Only in recent exceptions is the principle of provenance rigorously respected.

Nevertheless it is possible to have a general idea of the extent of the material from the following prospectus, referring to Fink's descriptive guide (v. bibl.) for more precise information:

I. Registers of pontifical letters, of the Chancery and of the Apostolic Camera (v. REGISTRI PONTIFICI).

II. Apostolic Camera: Introitus et Exitus, 565 vols. from 1279 to 1524; Collectoriae, 504 vols. from 1274; Obligationes et Solutiones, 91 vols. from 1295 to 1555; Diversa Cameralia, 253 vols. from 1389 to 1572; Indulgentiae, 222 vols. from 1470 to 1796; and many other series relating to the various functions of the Apostolic Camera down to the 19th century.

III. Consistory, from the 15th to the 19th century.

IV. College of Cardinals, with records of the conclaves from the 15th century.

V. Apostolic Datary, among the most important series: Lateran Briefs, 852 vols. from 1490 to 1800; minutes, ca. 30,000 from 1523 to 1599; registers of supplications, 7365 vols. from 1342 to 1899; trials, 166 vols. from 1622 to 1800.

VI. Secretariat of State; the correspondence from the 16th century to the end of the 18th is arranged according to the quality of the recipients (cardinals, bishops, princes, private individuals, soldiers) and according to the nunciatures and legations; from 1816 onward according to the original rubricary. To the Archive of the Secretariat of State must be added the Archives of the apostolic nunciatures transferred to the Vatican in recent years.

VII. Other Secretariats: of the Briefs (5660 vols. from 1566 to 1846); of the Briefs ad principes (252 vols. from 1560 to 1856); of the Latin letters; of the memorials.

VIII. Holy Congregations no longer existing: of the S. Consulta, of Bishops and Regulars, of Avignon, Lauretana, Economica, of Vigilance, of the Borders. Still existing: Consistorial, of the Sacraments, of the Council, of Religious, of Rites, of Extraordinary Ecclesiastical Affairs, of the Rev. Fabric of St. Peter's.

IX. Tribunals: Sacred Roman Rota. Signature.

X. Particular fonds and annexed archives: in Fink's guide 75 fonds are enumerated, among which some of great importance such as the Archives of the Holy Apostolic Palace, of the Vicariate of Rome (with the archives of the parishes) and of the Roman patrician families (v. above). Some series have the character of a collection and contain diverse matters; e.g.: the Santini Fondo contains among other things 10 vols. of registers of Roman notaries; the Spada Collection 418 vols. with journals, prints, edicts and engravings relating to the Roman Revolution of 1849.

In this group may also be considered the important collection of Miscellanea composed in the 17th century with manuscript volumes of diverse origin, generally important for the history of the Church, among which e.g. the Liber Cuminum (v.) and the Liber Diurnus (v.).

XI. Diplomatic archive. There is no single collection of parchments, but various groups of diverse importance and provenance, besides the Archive of Castel S. Angelo of which mention will be made separately. The Instrumenta Miscellanea consist of over 8000 documents from the 9th century onward, and over 3000 parchments are distributed in minor groups; to these must be added 16,712 parchments (from the 9th century) coming from suppressed monasteries of the Veneto and Tuscany, which came with the Archive of the Venetian Nunciature.

XII. The Archive of Castel S. Angelo (v. above) contains the most ancient and precious documents preserved by the Roman Church; privileges and diplomas of emperors, letters of sovereigns and in general writings of particular historical interest. Among the most precious, the purple diploma of Otto I of 962 written in golden letters, which is a document unique of its kind; the rolls of Lyon, solemn copies of sovereign privileges bearing the pontifical seal and 40 other seals of the cardinals and bishops present at the Council of Lyon of 1245, which served for the trial for the excommunication of Frederick II; the 78 sovereign diplomas with golden seal, the most important collection in the world, from Frederick Barbarossa (1164) to Napoleon (gilt silver casket, 1803), including a seal of Philip II of Spain (1555) weighing 820 grams. Many other documents are of singular interest, e.g.: three letters in the form of a roll sent to the Pope by the emperors of the East John and Manuel Comnenus (years 1124, 1127 and 1146), written in gold and finely decorated; a diploma of the Great Khan of Persia of 1246; three letters of Mongol kings of the years 1267 (or 1279), 1290 and 1302; the request sent to Pope Clement VII by the English Parliament in 1530 for the dissolution of the marriage of King Henry VIII, with 49 seals; two letters on silk sent to Innocent X in 1644 by a Chinese empress converted to Catholicism; the abdication of the throne of Queen Christina of Sweden (year 1654), with 306 seals; the Treaty of Tolentino (1797) and the Napoleonic Concordat (1801).

Present constitution. — The Vatican Archive, property of the Supreme Pontiff, is governed by a cardinal who bears the title of archivist (v.) of the Holy Roman Church.

The direction of the office is entrusted to the prefect; he is assisted by a vice-prefect, 4 archivists and 2 writers appointed by pontifical nomination. Scholars of every nation are admitted to public consultation, without distinctions of faith, upon presentation of an application accompanied by suitable letters of recommendation; photographic reproduction of the documents is permitted.

The restoration of parchments and papers is carried out in the special laboratory established at the Vatican Library.

Annexed to the Archive is the Pontifical School of paleography, diplomatics and archival science (v. below). — See plates CXV-CXVI.

III. PONTIFICAL SCHOOL OF PALEOGRAPHY AND DIPLOMATICS

COURSE IN ARCHIVAL SCIENCE. — The School of Paleography was established at the Vatican Secret Archive by Pope Leo XIII with a "motu proprio" of 1 May 1884 "for the purpose of promoting and strengthening serious historical studies concerning the Pontificate and the Church, and of training the young clergy in the knowledge and illustration of the documents that relate to it." Laymen, both men and women, are nevertheless also admitted to it.

The teaching is spread over two years, at the end of which, upon passing the prescribed examinations, the diploma of paleographer-archivist is issued; the examining commission is presided over by the Cardinal Archivist of Holy Roman Church. The diploma of the Vatican School is a preferential qualification in the hiring of archivists of ecclesiastical departments and, in particular, is recognized by the Italian State under art. 40 of the Concordat.

The first holder of the School was Msgr. Isidoro Carini. In the original curriculum, the first year comprised general notions of Latin paleography, diplomatics, historical criticism and chronology, and the second was devoted to practical application and the examination of the most important documents for the history of the Church. Carini (d. 1895) was succeeded by d. Angelo Melampo (from 1895 to 1913) and by p. Bruno Katterbach (from 1913 to 1931), who gave the School its present organization, reserving the first year for the systematic treatment of book paleography from the Roman age to humanism, including the de-

of manuscripts and illumination, and the second for diplomatics, with special regard to pontifical diplomatics. The lectures are illustrated by the direct study of the treasures of the Apostolic Library and of the Archive of the Holy See. In 1953 a new Statute of the School was issued. In 1923 the course in archival science was added, for the preparation of archivists destined for ecclesiastical archives, which in the recent reorganization of 1953 was reformed and expanded: the course lasts one year and leads to the attainment of a special diploma.

Giulio Battelli

VIII. VATICAN PRINTING HOUSE.

From the beginnings of the printing art, the Church availed itself of it for official and governmental printing. In Rome, among others, the printers Eucario Silber, Jacopo Mazzocchi, Francesco Minicio Calvo and especially Antonio Blado served the Curia; the latter at least from 1530 collected payments for his printings from the Apostolic Camera.

In 1589, Sixtus V granted to his son, Paolo, privileges and monopolies, later renewed many times to the long series of contractor printers of the Camerale; which, for the entire duration of the Papal State, continued to print the governmental and administrative publications of the temporal domain of the Holy See. In the field of scholarly, ecclesiastical and secular editions, Cardinal Marcello Cervini (in 1555, Marcellus II) carried out the work of a patron, drawing especially on the Vatican Library and making use of the printers Blado, Giunta and Priscianese. In 1561, Pius IV summoned Paolo Manuzio to Rome to establish an official printing house, which passed at the end of 1563 into the ownership of the Roman Commune or "people" and ceased its activity after 1570. A universal printing house of the Church, already conceived by Gregory XIII, was willed into being by Sixtus V, under the governance of the fourteenth of the new Sacred Congregations, entitled "pro typographia Vaticana" (bull Immensa aeterni Dei, 22 Jan. 1587); and he therefore formally erected it near the Apostolic Palace, calling to its direction the Venetian printer Domenico Basa (bull Eam semper, 27 Apr. 1587). Close relations were established between it and the Vatican Library, which was to provide the texts to be printed and the correctors.

This first Vatican Printing House lasted about twenty years and then merged with the Camerale, which inherited its typefaces and for some time bore its name in conjunction. In direct service of the apostolate in the mission countries, entrusted in 1622 by Gregory XV to the Congregation of Propaganda Fide, there arose almost contemporaneously near it a "polyglot printing house," officially founded in 1626, with oriental typefaces obtained from various places and which had a life of almost three centuries. Countless editions, especially of Scripture and of religious works, were produced by it, in various languages and characters (in 1873 it possessed types for printing in 180 idioms). Scholarly superintendents and skilled printers, among them the young Bodoni, worked there; until, in 1909, the glorious printing house ceased to exist separately.

When, at the beginning of the seventeenth century, the printing house of Sixtus V came to an end, the Vatican Library continued to be a depository of typefaces and to promote editions of learned works.

In the Vatican, and later at the Quirinal, there were also intermittently in operation "secret" or private printing houses, for the direct use of the pontiffs. In 1825, Leo XII revived the Vatican Printing House, furnishing it with excellent presses and typefaces of especially English manufacture; and in it were printed, among other things, two scholarly collections of Mai. Around 1837, its activity also ceased, because of the contemporaneous existence of the Camerale and Propaganda printing houses. But after the occupation of Rome, in 1870, a printing workshop in the Vatican became necessary. Enlarging the "secret" one of Pius IX, Leo XIII reestablished in 1884 the Vatican Printing House, in the same premises used by Sixtus V, from which it moved in 1909, by order of Pius X, into a new building, which it still occupies at present. Around this time, the merger of the ancient Propaganda printing house with the Vatican one took place, which also assumed the name Polyglot, inheriting its numerous exotic typefaces. With the building further enlarged by Benedict XV, in 1921, and the machinery and equipment continually increased under this Pontiff and his successors, the Vatican Printing House, now one of the largest and most modernly equipped, prints all the official editions and acts of government of the pontificate and of the Sacred Congregations; and moreover countless other works on behalf of private individuals. A section of it prints the Osservatore Romano (v.) and its illustrated weekly. From Aug. 1937 the administration and technical direction of the Printing House have been entrusted to the Salesians.

424: [A. Battandier], Imprimerie Vat., in Ann. pontif. cath., V,
Paris 1902, pp. 473-78; L. Huetter, Minuscula Vat., in the vol. V,
Florence [1946], pp. 680-86.
Nello Vian

IX. VATICAN OBSERVATORY AND RADIO.

I. THE VATICAN OBSERVATORY

Official name of the Pontifical Astronomical Observatory, transferred from the Vatican to Castel Gandolfo in 1923 and enlarged by an astrophysical laboratory.

In the upper loggia of the Tower of the Winds, erected in the Vatican by Gregory XIII in 1579, the learned Dominican Ignazio Danti built an anemoscope and the famous meridian, by means of which, according to tradition, the necessity of calendar reform was demonstrated to the Pope. Subsequently the loggia was transformed into a hall (by Urban VIII) for use as a library. But Cardinal Zelada, librarian from 1780, wished to restore scientific studies in this memorable place; he was, however, dissuaded from it by G. Calandrelli, then professor of astronomy at the Roman College. Nevertheless, at the insistence of Monsignor F. L. Gilii, Pius VI consented in 1797 that the appropriate restorations be made and entrusted to Gilii the care and direction of the "Pontifical Vatican Observatory," as it was called for the first time. The latter, with instruments partly donated by Cardinal Zelada and partly purchased at his own expense, carried out regular meteorological, geophysical and astronomical observations until 1821, the year of his death, with which every further scientific activity in this place came to an end.

When in 1879 the pontifical Observatory of the Roman College also, following the upheavals of 1870, passed to the administration of the Italian government, people began to think of a possible revival of the Vatican Observatory. The occasion presented itself in 1888, when, among the gifts that reached Leo XIII for his priestly jubilee, there also figured a collection of scientific instruments offered by the scholars of the Italian clergy, collected and arranged by the famous meteorologist and founder of the Italian Meteorological Society, Father Denza, a Barnabite, and by his faithful collaborator the Oratorian Father G. Lais. On the proposal of the organizers, the Pope had these instruments placed for scientific use in the abandoned Tower of the Winds and entrusted its direction to Father Denza. When the latter, in 1889, charged by the Pontiff, took part in the meeting of the Permanent Committee for the formation of the photographic chart of the sky in Paris, he arranged that a zone of the sky (+ 50° - + 64°) be assigned to the new Observatory as well. He therefore ordered from Gautier of Paris a normal astrograph, which was placed atop one of the massive towers of the fortification of Leo IV on the Vatican Hill. The photographic work was entrusted to the vice-director Father Lais. Thus came about the memorable motu proprio Ut mysticam of 14 March 1891, by which Leo XIII definitively established the constitution of the Vatican Observatory, whose activity then comprised, besides astronomy and astrophotography, also meteorology, geophysics and seismology. Father Denza, who died in 1894, was succeeded in the direction in 1898 by Father A. Rodriguez, an Augustinian, a most famous meteorologist of the Escorial, who, however, concerned himself almost exclusively with the meteorological part.

In 1904 Pius X appointed Monsignor P. Maffi, archbishop of Pisa and later cardinal, president of the Observatory, who, himself a scientist of renown, wished the astronomical character of the institute to have first place. In 1905, Father Rodriguez was recalled by his superiors and Pius X called to the direction of the Observatory Father J. G. Hagen, S. J. (v.), then director of the astronomical Observatory of Georgetown College and a renowned scholar of variable stars. Subsequently the Pope assigned the second Leonine Tower to the installation of a large equatorial for visual observations and the adjoining summer villa of Leo XIII to offices and dwellings for the astronomers. While Father Lais continued until his death (1921) the resumption of the photographs for the catalogue and the chart of the sky, Father Hagen faced the arduous task of measuring the 1040 plates, availing himself of the help of three nuns and a secretary, and succeeded in publishing the Astrographic Catalogue in 1928. Instead of the 540 charts planned, at his death (1930) only 120 had been issued. From the beginning he continued his studies on variable stars and published two further volumes of his famous Atlas stellarum variabilium, and, in collaboration with Father Stein, S. J., a complete encyclopedia in two volumes on the variables (1924). Noted are his experiments for the mechanical proof of the rotation of the Earth, made with the isotomeograph he built, and his observations of dark nebulae. He died, still working, at the age of 83, in 1930.

His successor, Father J. W. Stein, S. J. (v.), his assistant already from 1906 to 1910, realized from the outset that, to keep the institute at the level of the lofty conception of him who willed it revived to new life, a modern equipment was needed and a transfer to a location less disturbed by nighttime illumination. Pius XI received the new projects with great interest and immediately placed at its disposal his summer Palace of Castel Gandolfo. On the terraces of the Palace were placed a large visual refractor and a double astrograph consisting of a mirror and a photographic refractor with a quadruple lens, supplied, with their respective rotating domes, by the Zeiss firm of Jena. The instrumental furnishing was completed with most modern measuring and photometry instruments. He added moreover, under the direction of Father Gatterer, S. J., an astrophysical laboratory, equipped with powerful spectrographs and other installations necessary for astrophysical and spectrochemical research, especially in view of a future analysis of the numerous meteorites of the very large collection gathered by Engineer Marquis De Mauroy and donated, after his death, by his widow to the Pope in 1935. On 29 September 1935 Pius XI personally inaugurated the new institute with a most solemn ceremony.

Father Stein completed Father Hagen's Atlas with the posthumous edition of vol. VIII and by compiling the last one, vol. IX. He energetically continued the photographic chart of the sky, introducing a new photographic procedure and proposing to Pius XI the transfer to Castel Gandolfo of the old astrograph as well, which was carried out under Pius XII in 1942. His assistants, with the new instruments, began a systematic investigation of the structure of the galaxy with spectral-statistical studies and studies of very faint variable stars. To facilitate these studies, and also to update the Observatory's instrumentation, Father Stein proposed to Pius XII the purchase of a new telescope of the Schmidt type, at present (1953) still under construction. In the astrophysical laboratory the spectrochemical researches were soon begun, of which a first fruit was the compilation of various spectral atlases, highly esteemed by the experts. Subsequently the laboratory became a renowned center of spectroscopic studies, to which the publishing house Springer of Berlin entrusted in the difficult postwar times the edition of vol. III of the international scientific journal Spectrochimica Acta, and the International Astronomical Union in 1948 the compilation of an atlas of molecular spectra of astrophysical interest, a work that is still (1953) in progress. The scientific studies of lesser scope were for the most part published in two journals of its own: astronomical ones (from 1939) and Spectroscopic Researches (from 1938).
Father Stein died at the end of 1951 at the age of almost 81, and Pius XII appointed in 1952 as his successor Father D. O'Connell, S. J., director of the astronomical Observatory of Riverview College, Sydney, Australia. - See plate CXVII.

Giuseppe Junkes

II. THE VATICAN RADIO

Vatican Radio Station was born on February 12, 1931, in the Vatican Gardens, by the will of Pius XI, who wished to make it an expression of the sovereignty of the new Vatican City State. From the very beginning it intended to be, not an official nor an unofficial interpreter of the Holy See, but an organ based in the Vatican and having the purpose of being an echo of the Pope's voice, a reflection of the life of Rome and of the whole Church.

Initially only a "Marconi" transmitter (18 kws.) on short waves was used, prepared and inaugurated personally by Marconi himself; the services were not periodic. In 1937 a "Telefunken" transmitter (25 kws.) was added; later three "Marconi" transmitters (5 kws.); and, finally, on February 12, 1952, a more powerful "Marconi" one (50-60 kws.). By this date two transmitters for medium waves were also available, an "R.C.A." (5 kws.) and a "Safar" (2 kws.).

The studios underwent a similar evolution, housed first in the transmitter building, but later transferred to the Old Vatican Observatory, where they have recently been enlarged and equipped with the most modern and abundant means for transmission, control and recording. With these means Vatican Radio today carries out, after a similar evolution in its programs, various services: 1) All the radiotelegraphic traffic of the Vatican City State; 2) An ordinary radio broadcasting service in 25 languages, which comprises two main groups of transmissions: a) the I.R. Vat. news bulletin, after midday, daily in six languages; b) a series of talks, conferences... etc., in the evening; 3) Extraordinary transmissions, such as pontifical radio messages, solemnities and particular Vatican events. During the last war its contribution to the humanitarian work of the Holy See in the search for prisoners and missing persons was notable; 4) Auxiliary services within the Vatican State for recordings, loudspeakers at audiences and solemnities... etc. The sound system in the basilica and in St. Peter's Square is notable.

The transmissions of Vatican Radio comprise from ten to twelve hours daily; the languages today regularly used are: Italian, French, English, Spanish, German, Polish, Portuguese, Czech, Hungarian, Slovak, Latin, Croatian, Lithuanian, Slovenian, Romanian, Dutch, Latvian, Albanian, Russian, Arabic, Ukrainian, Bulgarian, Belarusian, Ethiopic, Chinese. Other languages are used in particular cases.

It can be said that Vatican Radio has exhausted its possibilities of development within the Vatican City. To improve its services it has planned the expansion of its facilities near Rome, in two localities that have the concession of extraterritoriality from the Italian government, by an agreement ratified on July 24, 1952.

The first director of Vatican Radio was Fr. G. Gianfranceschi S.J., followed by Fr. F. Soccorsi S.J., to whom the principal merit of all today's expansions is due; the current director is Fr. A. Stefanizzi S.J. - See plate CXVIII. Pérez García